1
|
Prato-Previde E, Basso Ricci E, Colombo ES. The Complexity of the Human–Animal Bond: Empathy, Attachment and Anthropomorphism in Human–Animal Relationships and Animal Hoarding. Animals (Basel) 2022; 12:ani12202835. [PMID: 36290219 PMCID: PMC9597799 DOI: 10.3390/ani12202835] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/05/2022] [Revised: 10/12/2022] [Accepted: 10/13/2022] [Indexed: 01/09/2023] Open
Abstract
Simple Summary The relationship between humans and animals may have positive effects for both parties, but there are situations in which it has poor or even negative effects for animals or for both humans and animals. Several studies reported the positive effects of this relationship in which both humans and animals obtain physical and psychological benefits from living together in a reciprocated interaction. There is also clear evidence that human–animal relationships may be characterized by different forms and levels of discomfort and suffering for animals and, in some cases, also for people. This work depicts the complex and multifaceted nature of the human–animal relationship; describes the role of empathy, attachment and anthropomorphism in the human–animal bond; shows how these psychological processes are involved in a dysfunctional way in animal hoarding, with highly detrimental effects on animal well-being. Abstract The human–animal relationship is ancient, complex and multifaceted. It may have either positive effects on humans and animals or poor or even negative and detrimental effects on animals or both humans and animals. A large body of literature has investigated the beneficial effects of this relationship in which both human and animals appear to gain physical and psychological benefits from living together in a reciprocated interaction. However, analyzing the literature with a different perspective it clearly emerges that not rarely are human–animal relationships characterized by different forms and levels of discomfort and suffering for animals and, in some cases, also for people. The negative physical and psychological consequences on animals’ well-being may be very nuanced and concealed, but there are situations in which the negative consequences are clear and striking, as in the case of animal violence, abuse or neglect. Empathy, attachment and anthropomorphism are human psychological mechanisms that are considered relevant for positive and healthy relationships with animals, but when dysfunctional or pathological determine physical or psychological suffering, or both, in animals as occurs in animal hoarding. The current work reviews some of the literature on the multifaceted nature of the human–animal relationship; describes the key role of empathy, attachment and anthropomorphism in human–animal relationships; seeks to depict how these psychological processes are distorted and dysfunctional in animal hoarding, with highly detrimental effects on both animal and human well-being.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Emanuela Prato-Previde
- Department of Pathophysiology and Transplantation, University of Milan, 20133 Milan, Italy
- Correspondence:
| | | | | |
Collapse
|
2
|
Russell SJ, Cain K. The animals in moral tales: Does character realism influence children’s prosocial response to stories? J Exp Child Psychol 2022; 219:105392. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jecp.2022.105392] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/04/2021] [Revised: 12/02/2021] [Accepted: 01/27/2022] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
|
3
|
Brunetta J, Fahner J, Legemaat M, van den Bergh E, Krommenhoek K, Prinsze K, Kars M, Michiels E. Age-Appropriate Advance Care Planning in Children Diagnosed with a Life-Limiting Condition: A Systematic Review. CHILDREN 2022; 9:children9060830. [PMID: 35740767 PMCID: PMC9221719 DOI: 10.3390/children9060830] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/15/2022] [Revised: 05/29/2022] [Accepted: 05/30/2022] [Indexed: 12/05/2022]
Abstract
Pediatric advance care planning (pACP) is an important strategy to support patient-centered care. It is known to be difficult, yet paramount, to involve the child in pACP while adjusting treatment to age and the corresponding stage of development. This systematic review was aimed to evaluate the age appropriateness of pACP interventions by assessing their characteristics, content, and evidence. CINAHL, Embase and MEDLINE were searched from 1 January 1998 to 31 August 2020 in order to identify peer-reviewed articles containing strategies and tools to facilitate pACP in both children (0–18 years) with life-limiting conditions and their families. An assessment of quality was performed using Cochrane tools and COREQ. The full protocol is available as PROSPERO CRD42020152243. Thirty-one articles describing 18 unique pACP tools were included. Most tools were developed for adolescents and young adults. In most cases, the interventions tried to assess the child’s and family’s preferences concerning their current and future hopes, wishes, and goals of the care. This was aimed to enhance communication about these preferences between children, their families, and health-care providers and to improve engagement in pACP. The relevance of an age-appropriate approach was mentioned in most articles, but this was mainly implicit. Seven articles implemented age-appropriate elements. Six factors influencing age appropriateness were identified. Tools to support pACP integrated age-appropriate elements to a very limited extent. They mainly focused on adolescents. The involvement of children of all ages may need a more comprehensive approach.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Julie Brunetta
- Julius Center for Health Sciences and Primary Care, University Medical Center Utrecht, 3584 CG Utrecht, The Netherlands; (J.B.); (M.K.)
| | - Jurrianne Fahner
- Division of Pediatrics, Wilhelmina Children’s Hospital, 3584 EA Utrecht, The Netherlands
- Correspondence:
| | - Monique Legemaat
- Princess Máxima Center for Pediatric Oncology, 3584 CS Utrecht, The Netherlands; (M.L.); (E.v.d.B.); (K.K.); (K.P.); (E.M.)
| | - Esther van den Bergh
- Princess Máxima Center for Pediatric Oncology, 3584 CS Utrecht, The Netherlands; (M.L.); (E.v.d.B.); (K.K.); (K.P.); (E.M.)
| | - Koen Krommenhoek
- Princess Máxima Center for Pediatric Oncology, 3584 CS Utrecht, The Netherlands; (M.L.); (E.v.d.B.); (K.K.); (K.P.); (E.M.)
| | - Kyra Prinsze
- Princess Máxima Center for Pediatric Oncology, 3584 CS Utrecht, The Netherlands; (M.L.); (E.v.d.B.); (K.K.); (K.P.); (E.M.)
| | - Marijke Kars
- Julius Center for Health Sciences and Primary Care, University Medical Center Utrecht, 3584 CG Utrecht, The Netherlands; (J.B.); (M.K.)
| | - Erna Michiels
- Princess Máxima Center for Pediatric Oncology, 3584 CS Utrecht, The Netherlands; (M.L.); (E.v.d.B.); (K.K.); (K.P.); (E.M.)
| |
Collapse
|
4
|
|
5
|
Labotka D, Gelman SA, Jipson JL. Parent-child conversations about animals on a visit to a (virtual) zoo. COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT 2021. [DOI: 10.1016/j.cogdev.2021.101123] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
|
6
|
Longbottom S, Slaughter V. Sources of children's knowledge about death and dying. Philos Trans R Soc Lond B Biol Sci 2019; 373:rstb.2017.0267. [PMID: 30012734 DOI: 10.1098/rstb.2017.0267] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 04/19/2018] [Indexed: 11/12/2022] Open
Abstract
In the last century, decreases in infant and child mortality, urbanization and increases in healthcare efficacy have reduced children's personal exposure to death and dying. So how do children acquire accurate conceptions of death in this context? In this paper, we discuss three sources of children's learning about death and dying, namely, direct experience of death, parental communication about death and portrayals of death in the media and the arts. We conclude with recommendations about how best to teach modern children about this aspect of life.This article is part of the theme issue 'Evolutionary thanatology: impacts of the dead on the living in humans and other animals'.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Sarah Longbottom
- Early Cognitive Development Centre, School of Psychology, University of Queensland, Brisbane, 4072, Australia
| | - Virginia Slaughter
- Early Cognitive Development Centre, School of Psychology, University of Queensland, Brisbane, 4072, Australia.,Graduate School of Letters, Kyoto University, Japan
| |
Collapse
|
7
|
Frède V, Frappart S, Jmel S. Burkinabe Children’s Acquisition and Construction of Astronomical Knowledge. JOURNAL OF CROSS-CULTURAL PSYCHOLOGY 2019. [DOI: 10.1177/0022022119860597] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
Knowledge acquisition and construction in astronomy is a difficult process, as the scientific concepts are mainly counterintuitive. Few studies in this domain have sought to understand children’s conceptual development by focusing on the characteristics of their developmental context. Our aim was thus to enhance current understanding of knowledge development in astronomy by studying children in a cultural context where the scientific worldview is not the dominant one. To this end, we interviewed 120 middle-class children from Burkina Faso (approximately 50% girls) in Grades 1, 3, 5, and 8 about their understanding of the Earth’s shape and the day–night cycle. Our results showed that first and third graders’ responses mainly relied on everyday observations of the Earth (i.e., flat) and a geocentric vision of the day–night cycle, but some scientific elements did appear in the fifth and eighth graders’ answers, probably owing to the science lessons they received at school. The present study shows that (a) when they are congruent, everyday observations, initial knowledge and everyday testimony, constitute a strong basis for children’s knowledge construction in astronomy and (b) even in Grade 8, after they have been exposed to classroom teaching of astronomy that promotes a scientific worldview, Burkinabe children have a mainly hybrid knowledge, mixing the scientific worldview with their own initial one. We can therefore confirm Jegede’s assertion that, for some non-Western children, nothing short of a revolution is needed to acquire a full scientific understanding and put aside traditional beliefs.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
| | | | - Saïd Jmel
- University of Toulouse-Jean Jaurès, France
| |
Collapse
|
8
|
Severson RL, Woodard SR. Imagining Others' Minds: The Positive Relation Between Children's Role Play and Anthropomorphism. Front Psychol 2018; 9:2140. [PMID: 30483176 PMCID: PMC6243028 DOI: 10.3389/fpsyg.2018.02140] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/17/2018] [Accepted: 10/17/2018] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Children’s role playing, whether personifying toys or imagining invisible friends, involves imagining others’ minds and internal states. Similarly, anthropomorphism – the attribution of internal states to non-human others (e.g., animals, inanimate nature, or technologies) – also involves imagining others’ minds and internal states. We propose that the imaginative process of simulating and projecting internal states is common to both role play and anthropomorphism. The current study investigated the relation between children’s role play and anthropomorphism. Ninety children (5, 7, and 9 years) were administered Individual Differences in Anthropomorphism Questionnaire – Child Form (IDAQ-CF), comprised of the technology-inanimate nature and animal subscales, and the Role Play Scale, which assessed (a) impersonation of animals, people, and/or machines and (b) imaginary companions (ICs), including invisible friends and personified toys. Results indicated that the imaginative act of impersonating an animal, person, and/or machine was positively related to anthropomorphism, and specifically anthropomorphism of inanimate nature and technology. Second, anthropomorphism of animals was highest amongst children with invisible ICs, followed by those with toy ICs and those who impersonated. Finally, children who frequently engaged with an invisible ICs more readily anthropomorphized in general and technology and inanimate nature in particular relative to all other children. Results are discussed in terms of the differing degrees of imagination involved in anthropomorphism of animals versus technology and inanimate nature.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Rachel L Severson
- Department of Psychology, University of Montana, Missoula, MT, United States
| | - Shailee R Woodard
- Department of Psychology, University of Montana, Missoula, MT, United States
| |
Collapse
|
9
|
Unger L, Fisher AV. Rapid, experience-related changes in the organization of children's semantic knowledge. J Exp Child Psychol 2018; 179:1-22. [PMID: 30468918 DOI: 10.1016/j.jecp.2018.10.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/20/2018] [Revised: 10/11/2018] [Accepted: 10/15/2018] [Indexed: 10/27/2022]
Abstract
The organization of knowledge according to relations between concepts is crucially important for many cognitive processes, and its emergence during childhood is a key focus of cognitive development research. Prior evidence about the role of learning and experience in the development of knowledge organization primarily comes from studies investigating differences between preexisting, naturally occurring groups (e.g., children from rural vs. urban settings, children who own a pet vs. children who do not) and a handful of studies on the effects of researcher-developed educational interventions. However, we know little about whether knowledge organization can be relatively rapidly molded by shorter-term real-world learning experiences (e.g., on a timescale of days vs. years or months). The current study investigated whether naturalistic learning experiences can drive rapid measurable changes in knowledge organization in children by investigating the effects of a week-long zoo summer camp (compared with a control school-based camp) on the degree to which 4- to 9-year-old children's knowledge about animals was organized according to taxonomic relations. Although there were no differences in taxonomic organization between the zoo camp and the school-based camp at pretest, only children who participated in the zoo camp showed increases in taxonomic organization at posttest. Moreover, analyses of changes in taxonomic organization in zoo camp children suggested that these changes were primarily driven by improvements in the degree to which children differentiated between taxonomic categories. These findings provide novel evidence that naturalistic experiences can drive rapid changes in knowledge organization.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Layla Unger
- Department of Psychology, Ohio State University, Columbus, OH 43210, USA.
| | - Anna V Fisher
- Department of Psychology, Carnegie Mellon University, Pittsburgh, PA 15213, USA
| |
Collapse
|
10
|
Strouse GA, Nyhout A, Ganea PA. The Role of Book Features in Young Children's Transfer of Information from Picture Books to Real-World Contexts. Front Psychol 2018; 9:50. [PMID: 29467690 PMCID: PMC5807901 DOI: 10.3389/fpsyg.2018.00050] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/02/2017] [Accepted: 01/12/2018] [Indexed: 12/04/2022] Open
Abstract
Picture books are an important source of new language, concepts, and lessons for young children. A large body of research has documented the nature of parent-child interactions during shared book reading. A new body of research has begun to investigate the features of picture books that support children's learning and transfer of that information to the real world. In this paper, we discuss how children's symbolic development, analogical reasoning, and reasoning about fantasy may constrain their ability to take away content information from picture books. We then review the nascent body of findings that has focused on the impact of picture book features on children's learning and transfer of words and letters, science concepts, problem solutions, and morals from picture books. In each domain of learning we discuss how children's development may interact with book features to impact their learning. We conclude that children's ability to learn and transfer content from picture books can be disrupted by some book features and research should directly examine the interaction between children's developing abilities and book characteristics on children's learning.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Gabrielle A Strouse
- Counselling and Psychology in Education, University of South Dakota, Vermillion, SD, United States
| | - Angela Nyhout
- Department of Applied Psychology and Human Development, University of Toronto, Toronto, ON, Canada
| | - Patricia A Ganea
- Department of Applied Psychology and Human Development, University of Toronto, Toronto, ON, Canada
| |
Collapse
|
11
|
Dixson HGW, Komugabe-Dixson AF, Dixson BJ, Low J. Scaling Theory of Mind in a Small-Scale Society: A Case Study From Vanuatu. Child Dev 2017; 89:2157-2175. [DOI: 10.1111/cdev.12919] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
|
12
|
Ojalehto BL, Medin DL, García SG. Conceptualizing agency: Folkpsychological and folkcommunicative perspectives on plants. Cognition 2017; 162:103-123. [PMID: 28219035 DOI: 10.1016/j.cognition.2017.01.023] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/02/2015] [Revised: 01/28/2017] [Accepted: 01/31/2017] [Indexed: 01/15/2023]
Abstract
The present research addresses cultural variation in concepts of agency. Across two experiments, we investigate how Indigenous Ngöbe of Panama and US college students interpret and make inferences about nonhuman agency, focusing on plants as a critical test case. In Experiment 1, participants predicted goal-directed actions for plants and other nonhuman kinds and judged their capacities for intentional agency. Goal-directed action is pervasive among living kinds and as such we expected cultural agreement on these predictions. However, we expected that interpretation of the capacities involved would differ based on cultural folktheories. As expected, Ngöbe and US participants both inferred that plants would engage in goal-directed action but Ngöbe were more likely to attribute intentional agency capacities to plants. Experiment 2 extends these findings by investigating action predictions and capacity attributions linked to complex forms of plant social agency recently discovered in botanical sciences (communication, kin altruism). We hypothesized that the Ngöbe view of plants as active agents would productively guide inferences for plant social interaction. Indeed, Ngöbe were more likely than US participants to infer that plants can engage in social behaviors and they also attributed more social agency capacities to plants. We consolidate these findings by using bottom-up consensus modeling to show that these cultural differences reflect two distinct conceptual models of agency rather than variations on a single (universal) model. We consider these findings in light of current theories of domain-specificity and animism, and offer an alternative account based on a folktheory of communication that infers agency on the basis of relational interactions rather than having a mind.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Bethany L Ojalehto
- Psychology Department, Northwestern University, 2029 Sheridan Road - 102 Swift Hall, Evanston, IL 60208-2710, United States.
| | - Douglas L Medin
- Psychology Department, Northwestern University, 2029 Sheridan Road - 102 Swift Hall, Evanston, IL 60208-2710, United States
| | - Salino G García
- Ngöbe Culture and Language Education Program, Bocas del Toro, Panama
| |
Collapse
|
13
|
Li H, Hsueh Y, Wang F, Bai X, Liu T, Zhou L. Do Young Chinese Children Gain Anthropomorphism after Exposure to Personified Touch-Screen and Board Games? Front Psychol 2017; 8:55. [PMID: 28179891 PMCID: PMC5264129 DOI: 10.3389/fpsyg.2017.00055] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/31/2016] [Accepted: 01/10/2017] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Research shows that preschoolers are likely to anthropomorphize not only animals, but also inanimate toy after being exposed to books that personify these objects. Can such an effect also arise through young children's use of touch-screen games? The present study is the first to examine whether playing a touch-screen personified train game affects young children's anthropomorphism of real trains. Seventy-nine 4- and 6-year-old children were randomly assigned to play either a touch-screen game or a board game of Thomas the Tank Engine for 10 min. They completed the Individual Differences in Anthropomorphism Questionnaire-Child Form (IDAQ-CF) (two subscales: Technology/Inanimate Nature, Animate Nature) and an additional four items about the anthropomorphism of real trains, before (T1) and after (T2) the game. Overall results showed that children manifested a small but statistically significant increase in anthropomorphizing of real trains after their exposure to both games, claiming that real trains were like humans. Interestingly, 4-year-old children in the board game group tended to anthropomorphize real trains more than those in the touch-screen group, whereas the reverse was true for the 6-year-old children. The results suggest that touch-screen games may delay the decline of children's anthropomorphism during the cognitive and socio-emotional transition that occurs in children aged 5-7. These findings have implications for future research on how touch-screen games increase children's anthropomorphism of the real world, and more generally, for evaluation of the influence of the growing use of touch-screen games on young children's learning.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Hui Li
- Academy of Psychology and Behavior, Tianjin Normal University Tianjin, China
| | - Yeh Hsueh
- College of Education, University of Memphis, Memphis TN, USA
| | - Fuxing Wang
- School of Psychology, Central China Normal University Wuhan, China
| | - Xuejun Bai
- Academy of Psychology and Behavior, Tianjin Normal University Tianjin, China
| | - Tao Liu
- School of Management, Zhejiang University Hangzhou, China
| | - Li Zhou
- School of Psychology, Central China Normal University Wuhan, China
| |
Collapse
|
14
|
Waytz A, Cacioppo J, Epley N. Who Sees Human? The Stability and Importance of Individual Differences in Anthropomorphism. PERSPECTIVES ON PSYCHOLOGICAL SCIENCE 2015; 5:219-32. [PMID: 24839457 DOI: 10.1177/1745691610369336] [Citation(s) in RCA: 255] [Impact Index Per Article: 28.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
Anthropomorphism is a far-reaching phenomenon that incorporates ideas from social psychology, cognitive psychology, developmental psychology, and the neurosciences. Although commonly considered to be a relatively universal phenomenon with only limited importance in modern industrialized societies-more cute than critical-our research suggests precisely the opposite. In particular, we provide a measure of stable individual differences in anthropomorphism that predicts three important consequences for everyday life. This research demonstrates that individual differences in anthropomorphism predict the degree of moral care and concern afforded to an agent, the amount of responsibility and trust placed on an agent, and the extent to which an agent serves as a source of social influence on the self. These consequences have implications for disciplines outside of psychology including human-computer interaction, business (marketing and finance), and law. Concluding discussion addresses how understanding anthropomorphism not only informs the burgeoning study of nonpersons, but how it informs classic issues underlying person perception as well.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Adam Waytz
- Department of Psychology, Harvard University, Cambridge, MA
| | | | | |
Collapse
|
15
|
Severson RL. Good science? We should all be asking. JOURNAL OF APPLIED DEVELOPMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY 2015. [DOI: 10.1016/j.appdev.2014.11.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
|
16
|
Geerdts MS, Van de Walle GA, LoBue V. Daily animal exposure and children's biological concepts. J Exp Child Psychol 2014; 130:132-46. [PMID: 25462037 DOI: 10.1016/j.jecp.2014.10.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/19/2013] [Revised: 10/03/2014] [Accepted: 10/03/2014] [Indexed: 10/24/2022]
Abstract
A large body of research has focused on the developmental trajectory of children's acquisition of a theoretically coherent naive biology. However, considerably less work has focused on how specific daily experiences shape the development of children's knowledge about living things. In the current research, we investigated one common experience that might contribute to biological knowledge development during early childhood-pet ownership. In Study 1, we investigated how children interact with pets by observing 24 preschool-aged children with their pet cats or dogs and asking parents about their children's daily involvement with the pets. We found that most of young children's observed and reported interactions with their pets are reciprocal social interactions. In Study 2, we tested whether children who have daily social experiences with animals are more likely to attribute biological properties to animals than children without pets. Both 3- and 5-year-olds with pets were more likely to attribute biological properties to animals than those without pets. Similarly, both older and younger children with pets showed less anthropocentric patterns of extension of novel biological information. The results suggest that having pets may facilitate the development of a more sophisticated, human-inclusive representation of animals.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Megan S Geerdts
- Department of Psychology, University of North Carolina at Greensboro, Greensboro, NC 27402, USA.
| | | | - Vanessa LoBue
- Department of Psychology, Rutgers University - Newark, Newark, NJ 07102, USA
| |
Collapse
|
17
|
Abstract
The well-respected tradition of research on concepts uses cross-cultural comparisons to explore which aspects of conceptual behavior are universal versus culturally variable. This work continues, but it is being supplemented by intensified efforts to study how conceptual systems and cultural systems interact to modify and support each other. For example, cultural studies within the framework of domain specificity (e.g., folkphysics, folkpsychology, folkbiology) are beginning to query the domains themselves and offer alternative organizing principles (e.g., folksociology, folkecology). Findings highlight the multifaceted nature of both concepts and culture: Individuals adopt distinct conceptual construals in accordance with culturally infused systems such as language and discourse, knowledge and beliefs, and epistemological orientations. This picture complicates questions about cognitive universality or variability, suggesting that researchers may productively adopt a systems-level approach to conceptual organization and cultural epistemologies. Related implications for diversity in cognitive science are discussed.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Bethany l ojalehto
- Psychology Department, Northwestern University, Evanston, Illinois 60208; ,
| | | |
Collapse
|
18
|
Ganea PA, Canfield CF, Simons-Ghafari K, Chou T. Do cavies talk? The effect of anthropomorphic picture books on children's knowledge about animals. Front Psychol 2014; 5:283. [PMID: 24782793 PMCID: PMC3989584 DOI: 10.3389/fpsyg.2014.00283] [Citation(s) in RCA: 74] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/14/2013] [Accepted: 03/17/2014] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Many books for young children present animals in fantastical and unrealistic ways, such as wearing clothes, talking and engaging in human-like activities. This research examined whether anthropomorphism in children's books affects children's learning and conceptions of animals, by specifically assessing the impact of depictions (a bird wearing clothes and reading a book) and language (bird described as talking and as having human intentions). In Study 1, 3-, 4-, and 5-year-old children saw picture books featuring realistic drawings of a novel animal. Half of the children also heard factual, realistic language, while the other half heard anthropomorphized language. In Study 2, we replicated the first study using anthropomorphic illustrations of real animals. The results show that the language used to describe animals in books has an effect on children's tendency to attribute human-like traits to animals, and that anthropomorphic storybooks affect younger children's learning of novel facts about animals. These results indicate that anthropomorphized animals in books may not only lead to less learning but also influence children's conceptual knowledge of animals.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Patricia A Ganea
- Applied Psychology and Human Development, University of Toronto Toronto, ON, Canada
| | - Caitlin F Canfield
- Department of Psychological and Brain Sciences, Boston University Boston, MA, USA
| | | | - Tommy Chou
- Department of Psychology, Florida International University Miami, FL, USA
| |
Collapse
|
19
|
|
20
|
Panagiotaki G, Nobes G. Cultural influences on children's understanding of the human body and the concept of life. BRITISH JOURNAL OF DEVELOPMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY 2014; 32:276-90. [PMID: 24628109 DOI: 10.1111/bjdp.12039] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/05/2013] [Revised: 02/05/2014] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
This study aimed to identify the age by which children begin to demonstrate a biological understanding of the human body and the idea that the purpose of body functioning is to maintain life. The study also explored the influence of education, culturally specific experiences and religion on knowledge acquisition in this domain. Children aged between 4 and 7 years from three different cultural backgrounds (White British, British Muslim, and Pakistani Muslim) were interviewed about the human body and its functioning. At least half of the 4- to 5-year-olds in each cultural group, and almost all 6- to 7-year-olds, referred to the maintenance of life when explaining organs' functions and so were classified as 'life theorizers'. Pakistani Muslim children gave fewer biological responses to questions about organs' functions and the purpose of eating and breathing, but referred to life more than their British counterparts. Irrespective of cultural group, older children understood organ location and function better than younger children. These findings support Jaakkola and Slaughter's (2002, Br. J. Dev. Psychol., 20, 325) view that children's understanding of the body as a 'life machine' emerges around the ages of 4-5 years. They also suggest that, despite many similarities in children's ideas cross-culturally, different educational input and culturally specific experiences influence aspects of their biological understanding.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Georgia Panagiotaki
- Department of Clinical Psychology, Norwich Medical School, University of East Anglia, Norwich, UK
| | | |
Collapse
|
21
|
Waxman SR, Herrmann P, Woodring J, Medin DL. Humans (really) are animals: picture-book reading influences 5-year-old urban children's construal of the relation between humans and non-human animals. Front Psychol 2014; 5:172. [PMID: 24672493 PMCID: PMC3956115 DOI: 10.3389/fpsyg.2014.00172] [Citation(s) in RCA: 34] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/26/2013] [Accepted: 02/12/2014] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
What is the relation between humans and non-human animals? From a biological perspective, we view humans as one species among many, but in the fables and films we create for children, we often offer an anthropocentric perspective, imbuing non-human animals with human-like characteristics. What are the consequences of these distinctly different perspectives on children’s reasoning about the natural world? Some have argued that children universally begin with an anthropocentric perspective and that acquiring a biological perspective requires a basic conceptual change (cf. Carey, 1985). But recent work reveals that this anthropocentric perspective, evidenced in urban 5-year-olds, is not evident in 3-year-olds (Herrmann etal., 2010). This indicates that the anthropocentric perspective is not an obligatory first step in children’s reasoning about biological phenomena. In the current paper, we introduced a priming manipulation to assess whether 5-year-olds’ reasoning about a novel biological property is influenced by the perspectives they encounter in children’s books. Just before participating in a reasoning task, each child read a book about bears with an experimenter. What varied was whether bears were depicted from an anthropomorphic (Berenstain Bears) or biological perspective (Animal Encyclopedia). The priming had a dramatic effect. Children reading the Berenstain Bears showed the standard anthropocentric reasoning pattern, but those reading the Animal Encyclopedia adopted a biological pattern. This offers evidence that urban 5-year-olds can adopt either a biological or a human-centered stance, depending upon the context. Thus, children’s books and other media are double-edged swords. Media may (inadvertently) support human-centered reasoning in young children, but may also be instrumental in redirecting children’s attention to a biological model.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Sandra R Waxman
- Department of Psychology, Northwestern University Evanston, IL, USA
| | | | - Jennie Woodring
- Department of Psychology, Northwestern University Evanston, IL, USA
| | - Douglas L Medin
- Department of Psychology, Northwestern University Evanston, IL, USA
| |
Collapse
|
22
|
Ganea PA, Ma L, Deloache JS. Young children's learning and transfer of biological information from picture books to real animals. Child Dev 2011; 82:1421-33. [PMID: 21679177 DOI: 10.1111/j.1467-8624.2011.01612.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 78] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/01/2022]
Abstract
Preschool children (N = 104) read a book that described and illustrated color camouflage in animals (frogs and lizards). Children were then asked to indicate and explain which of 2 novel animals would be more likely to fall prey to a predatory bird. In Experiment 1, 3- and 4-year-olds were tested with pictures depicting animals in camouflage and noncamouflage settings; in Experiment 2, 4-year-olds were tested with real animals. The results show that by 4 years of age, children can learn new biological facts from a picture book. Of particular importance, transfer from books to real animals was found. These findings point to the importance that early book exposure can play in framing and increasing children's knowledge about the world.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Patricia A Ganea
- Institute of Child Study, Human Developmentand Applied Psychology, University of Toronto, Toronto, Ontario, Canada.
| | | | | |
Collapse
|
23
|
Leddon EM, Waxman SR, Medin DL. What does it mean to ‘live’ and ‘die’? A cross-linguistic analysis of parent-child conversations in English and Indonesian. BRITISH JOURNAL OF DEVELOPMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY 2011; 29:375-95. [DOI: 10.1348/026151010x490858] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/12/2022]
|
24
|
Abstract
AbstractBehavioral scientists routinely publish broad claims about human psychology and behavior in the world's top journals based on samples drawn entirely from Western, Educated, Industrialized, Rich, and Democratic (WEIRD) societies. Researchers – often implicitly – assume that either there is little variation across human populations, or that these “standard subjects” are as representative of the species as any other population. Are these assumptions justified? Here, our review of the comparative database from across the behavioral sciences suggests both that there is substantial variability in experimental results across populations and that WEIRD subjects are particularly unusual compared with the rest of the species – frequent outliers. The domains reviewed include visual perception, fairness, cooperation, spatial reasoning, categorization and inferential induction, moral reasoning, reasoning styles, self-concepts and related motivations, and the heritability of IQ. The findings suggest that members of WEIRD societies, including young children, are among the least representative populations one could find for generalizing about humans. Many of these findings involve domains that are associated with fundamental aspects of psychology, motivation, and behavior – hence, there are no obviousa priorigrounds for claiming that a particular behavioral phenomenon is universal based on sampling from a single subpopulation. Overall, these empirical patterns suggests that we need to be less cavalier in addressing questions ofhumannature on the basis of data drawn from this particularly thin, and rather unusual, slice of humanity. We close by proposing ways to structurally re-organize the behavioral sciences to best tackle these challenges.
Collapse
|
25
|
Anthropocentrism is not the first step in children's reasoning about the natural world. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2010; 107:9979-84. [PMID: 20479241 DOI: 10.1073/pnas.1004440107] [Citation(s) in RCA: 77] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
What is the relation between human and nonhuman animals? As adults, we construe this relation flexibly, depending in part on the situation at hand. From a biological perspective, we acknowledge the status of humans as one species among many (as in Western science), but at the same time may adopt other perspectives, including an anthropocentric perspective in which human characteristics are attributed to nonhuman animals (as in fables and popular media). How do these perspectives develop? The predominant view in developmental cognitive science is that young children universally possess only one markedly anthropocentric vantage point, and must undergo fundamental conceptual change, overturning their initially human-centered framework before they can acquire a distinctly biological framework. Evidence from two experiments challenges this view. By developing a task that allows us to test children as young as 3 years of age, we are able to demonstrate that anthropocentrism is not the first developmental step in children's reasoning about the biological world. Although urban 5-year-olds adopt an anthropocentric perspective, replicating previous reports, 3-year-olds show no hint of anthropocentrism. This suggests a previously unexplored model of development: Anthropocentrism is not an initial step in conceptual development, but is instead an acquired perspective, one that emerges between 3 and 5 years of age in children raised in urban environments.
Collapse
|
26
|
Waytz A, Epley N, Cacioppo JT. Social Cognition Unbound: Insights Into Anthropomorphism and Dehumanization. CURRENT DIRECTIONS IN PSYCHOLOGICAL SCIENCE 2010; 19:58-62. [PMID: 24839358 DOI: 10.1177/0963721409359302] [Citation(s) in RCA: 149] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
People conceive of wrathful gods, fickle computers, and selfish genes, attributing human characteristics to a variety of supernatural, technological, and biological agents. This tendency to anthropomorphize nonhuman agents figures prominently in domains ranging from religion to marketing to computer science. Perceiving an agent to be humanlike has important implications for whether the agent is capable of social influence, accountable for its actions, and worthy of moral care and consideration. Three primary factors-elicited agent knowledge, sociality motivation, and effectance motivation-appear to account for a significant amount of variability in anthropomorphism. Identifying these factors that lead people to see nonhuman agents as humanlike also sheds light on the inverse process of dehumanization, whereby people treat human agents as animals or objects. Understanding anthropomorphism can contribute to a more expansive view of social cognition that applies social psychological theory to a wide variety of both human and nonhuman agents.
Collapse
|
27
|
Rhodes M, Gelman SA. A developmental examination of the conceptual structure of animal, artifact, and human social categories across two cultural contexts. Cogn Psychol 2009; 59:244-74. [PMID: 19524886 PMCID: PMC2770000 DOI: 10.1016/j.cogpsych.2009.05.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 187] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/26/2008] [Accepted: 05/08/2009] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
Abstract
Previous research indicates that the ontological status that adults attribute to categories varies systematically by domain. For example, adults view distinctions between different animal species as natural and objective, but view distinctions between different kinds of furniture as more conventionalized and subjective. The present work (N=435; ages 5-18) examined the effects of domain, age, and cultural context on beliefs about the naturalness vs. conventionality of categories. Results demonstrate that young children, like adults, view animal categories as natural kinds, but artifact categories as more conventionalized. For human social categories (gender and race), beliefs about naturalness and conventionality were predicted by interactions between cultural context and age. Implications for the origins of social categories and theories of conceptual development will be discussed.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Marjorie Rhodes
- University of Michigan, 2422 East Hall, Ann Arbor, MI 48109, USA.
| | | |
Collapse
|
28
|
Co-Constructing Conceptual Domains Through Family Conversations and Activities. PSYCHOLOGY OF LEARNING AND MOTIVATION 2008. [DOI: 10.1016/s0079-7421(08)00004-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 03/07/2023]
|