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Tuieng RJ, Cartmell SH, Kirwan CC, Sherratt MJ. The Effects of Ionising and Non-Ionising Electromagnetic Radiation on Extracellular Matrix Proteins. Cells 2021; 10:3041. [PMID: 34831262 PMCID: PMC8616186 DOI: 10.3390/cells10113041] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/27/2021] [Revised: 10/28/2021] [Accepted: 10/30/2021] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Exposure to sub-lethal doses of ionising and non-ionising electromagnetic radiation can impact human health and well-being as a consequence of, for example, the side effects of radiotherapy (therapeutic X-ray exposure) and accelerated skin ageing (chronic exposure to ultraviolet radiation: UVR). Whilst attention has focused primarily on the interaction of electromagnetic radiation with cells and cellular components, radiation-induced damage to long-lived extracellular matrix (ECM) proteins has the potential to profoundly affect tissue structure, composition and function. This review focuses on the current understanding of the biological effects of ionising and non-ionising radiation on the ECM of breast stroma and skin dermis, respectively. Although there is some experimental evidence for radiation-induced damage to ECM proteins, compared with the well-characterised impact of radiation exposure on cell biology, the structural, functional, and ultimately clinical consequences of ECM irradiation remain poorly defined.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ren Jie Tuieng
- Division of Cell Matrix Biology & Regenerative Medicine, School of Biological Sciences, Faculty of Biology, Medicine and Health, University of Manchester, Manchester M13 9PT, UK;
| | - Sarah H. Cartmell
- Department of Materials, School of Natural Sciences, Faculty of Science and Engineering and The Henry Royce Institute, Royce Hub Building, University of Manchester, Manchester M13 9PL, UK;
| | - Cliona C. Kirwan
- Division of Cancer Sciences and Manchester Breast Centre, Oglesby Cancer Research Building, Manchester Cancer Research Centre, School of Medical Sciences, Faculty of Biology, Medicine and Health, University of Manchester, Manchester M20 4BX, UK;
| | - Michael J. Sherratt
- Division of Cell Matrix Biology & Regenerative Medicine and Manchester Breast Centre, Faculty of Biology, Medicine and Health, University of Manchester, Manchester M13 9PT, UK
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Burster T, Knippschild U, Molnár F, Zhanapiya A. Cathepsin G and its Dichotomous Role in Modulating Levels of MHC Class I Molecules. Arch Immunol Ther Exp (Warsz) 2020; 68:25. [PMID: 32815043 DOI: 10.1007/s00005-020-00585-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/30/2019] [Accepted: 06/11/2020] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
Abstract
Cathepsin G (CatG) is involved in controlling numerous processes of the innate and adaptive immune system. These features include the proteolytic activity of CatG and play a pivotal role in alteration of chemokines as well as cytokines, clearance of exogenous and internalized pathogens, platelet activation, apoptosis, and antigen processing. This is in contrast to the capability of CatG acting in a proteolytic-independent manner due to the net charge of arginine residues in the CatG sequence which interferes with bacteria. CatG is a double-edged sword; CatG is also responsible in pathophysiological conditions, such as autoimmunity, chronic pulmonary diseases, HIV infection, tumor progression and metastasis, photo-aged human skin, Papillon-Lefèvre syndrome, and chronic inflammatory pain. Here, we summarize the latest findings for functional responsibilities of CatG in immunity, including bivalent regulation of major histocompatibility complex class I molecules, which underscore an additional novel role of CatG within the immune system.
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Affiliation(s)
- Timo Burster
- Department of Biology, School of Sciences and Humanities, Nazarbayev University, Kabanbay Batyr Ave. 53, Nur-Sultan, 010000, Kazakhstan.
| | - Uwe Knippschild
- Department of General and Visceral Surgery, Surgery Center, Ulm University Hospital, 89081, Ulm, Germany
| | - Ferdinand Molnár
- Department of Biology, School of Sciences and Humanities, Nazarbayev University, Kabanbay Batyr Ave. 53, Nur-Sultan, 010000, Kazakhstan
| | - Anuar Zhanapiya
- Department of Biology, School of Sciences and Humanities, Nazarbayev University, Kabanbay Batyr Ave. 53, Nur-Sultan, 010000, Kazakhstan
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Kusumaningrum N, Oh JH, Lee DH, Shin CY, Jang JH, Kim YK, Chung JH. Topical treatment with a cathepsin G inhibitor, β-keto-phosphonic acid, blocks ultraviolet irradiation-induced basement membrane damage in hairless mouse skin. PHOTODERMATOLOGY PHOTOIMMUNOLOGY & PHOTOMEDICINE 2018; 35:148-156. [PMID: 30414203 DOI: 10.1111/phpp.12438] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/10/2018] [Revised: 10/19/2018] [Accepted: 11/04/2018] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Ultraviolet light (UV) exposure contributes various effects to skin including damage of the basement membrane. Cathepsin G (CTSG) belongs to serine protease family, and its upregulation is involved in wrinkle formation by chronic UV irradiation. However, the effect of CTSG on the basement membrane damage in skin remains unclear. PURPOSE To investigate the effects of topical treatment with a CTSG inhibitor, β-keto-phosphonic acid (KPA), on basement membrane damage in chronically UV-irradiated hairless mouse skin. METHODS The dorsal skin of hairless mice was exposed to UV three times per week for 8 weeks. KPA was applied immediately after each session of UV irradiation. The basement membrane components, CTSG expression, and neutrophil infiltration were analyzed by immunofluorescence staining. The basement membrane structures were visualized by transmission electron microscope. CTSG and MMP-13 protein levels were analyzed by Western blotting. Assessment of wrinkle formation was examined using a skin replica assay. RESULTS β-keto-phosphonic acid prevented UV irradiation-induced decrease in type VII collagen, laminin 332, and perlecan at the basement membrane zone and prevented UV-induced breakage of lamina densa and UV-induced shortening of hemidesmosome. KPA prevented UV-induced CTSG and MMP-13 expressions in chronically UV-irradiated hairless mice. Increase in neutrophil infiltration by UV irradiation and UV-induced wrinkle formation was also prevented by KPA. CONCLUSION Our present study showed the possible involvement of CTSG in UV-induced basement membrane damage in skin through topical treatment with a CTSG inhibitor, KPA. Thus, inhibition of CTSG may be a useful strategy for the prevention of UV-induced basement membrane damage and photoaging.
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Affiliation(s)
- Novi Kusumaningrum
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, Seoul National University Graduate School, Seoul, Korea.,Department of Dermatology, Seoul National University College of Medicine, Seoul, Korea.,Institute of Human-Environment Interface Biology, Medical Research Center, Seoul National University, Seoul, Korea
| | - Jang-Hee Oh
- Department of Dermatology, Seoul National University College of Medicine, Seoul, Korea.,Institute of Human-Environment Interface Biology, Medical Research Center, Seoul National University, Seoul, Korea
| | - Dong Hun Lee
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, Seoul National University Graduate School, Seoul, Korea.,Department of Dermatology, Seoul National University College of Medicine, Seoul, Korea.,Institute of Human-Environment Interface Biology, Medical Research Center, Seoul National University, Seoul, Korea
| | - Chang-Yup Shin
- Department of Dermatology, Seoul National University College of Medicine, Seoul, Korea.,Institute of Human-Environment Interface Biology, Medical Research Center, Seoul National University, Seoul, Korea
| | - Jee-Hee Jang
- Department of Dermatology, Seoul National University College of Medicine, Seoul, Korea.,Institute of Human-Environment Interface Biology, Medical Research Center, Seoul National University, Seoul, Korea
| | - Yeon Kyung Kim
- Department of Dermatology, Seoul National University College of Medicine, Seoul, Korea.,Institute of Human-Environment Interface Biology, Medical Research Center, Seoul National University, Seoul, Korea
| | - Jin Ho Chung
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, Seoul National University Graduate School, Seoul, Korea.,Department of Dermatology, Seoul National University College of Medicine, Seoul, Korea.,Institute of Human-Environment Interface Biology, Medical Research Center, Seoul National University, Seoul, Korea.,Institute on Aging, Seoul National University, Seoul, Korea
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4
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Kim JE, Song D, Kim J, Choi J, Kim JR, Yoon HS, Bae JS, Han M, Lee S, Hong JS, Song D, Kim SJ, Son MJ, Choi SW, Chung JH, Kim TA, Lee KW. Oral Supplementation with Cocoa Extract Reduces UVB-Induced Wrinkles in Hairless Mouse Skin. J Invest Dermatol 2016; 136:1012-1021. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jid.2015.11.032] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/15/2015] [Revised: 11/26/2015] [Accepted: 11/30/2015] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
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Ramanathan A, Karuri N. Proteolysis of decellularized extracellular matrices results in loss of fibronectin and cell binding activity. Biochem Biophys Res Commun 2015; 459:246-251. [PMID: 25724944 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbrc.2015.02.092] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/03/2015] [Accepted: 02/17/2015] [Indexed: 01/05/2023]
Abstract
Excessive inflammation in the chronic wound bed is believed to result in increased fibronectin (FN) proteolysis and poor tissue repair. However, FN fragments can prime the immune response and result in higher protease levels. The reciprocity between FN proteolysis and inflammation makes it challenging to determine the specific contribution of FN proteolysis in the extracellular matrix (ECM) on tissue responses. We studied the impact of proteolysis of decellularized extracellular matrices (dECMs) obtained from NIH 3T3 mouse fibroblasts on FN level and activity. The dECMs were treated with α chymotrypsin and proteolysis was stopped at different time points. The protease solution was obtained, the remaining dECM was scrapped and examined by immunoblotting and Bicinchoninic Acid assays. Fibronectin was 9.4 ± 1.8% of the total protein content in the dECM but was more susceptible to proteolysis. After 15 min of protease treatment there was a 67.6% and 11.1% decrease in FN and total protein, respectively, in the dECMs. Fibronectin fragments were present both in the proteolysis solution and in the dECM. Cell adhesion, spreading and actin extensions on dECMs decreased with increasing proteolysis time. Interestingly, the solutions obtained after proteolysis of the dECMs supported cell adhesion and spreading in a time dependent manner, thus demonstrating the presence of FN cell binding activity in the protease solution of dECMs. This study demonstrates the susceptibility of FN in the ECM to proteolysis and the resulting loss of cell adhesion due to the decrease of FN activity and places weight on bioengineering strategies to stabilize FN against proteolysis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anand Ramanathan
- Department of Chemical and Biological Engineering, Illinois Institute of Technology, 10 W. 33rd St, Chicago, IL 60616, USA
| | - Nancy Karuri
- Department of Chemical and Biological Engineering, Illinois Institute of Technology, 10 W. 33rd St, Chicago, IL 60616, USA.
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Lin RF, Feng XX, Li CW, Zhang XJ, Yu XT, Zhou JY, Zhang X, Xie YL, Su ZR, Zhan JYX. Prevention of UV radiation-induced cutaneous photoaging in mice by topical administration of patchouli oil. JOURNAL OF ETHNOPHARMACOLOGY 2014; 154:408-418. [PMID: 24747030 DOI: 10.1016/j.jep.2014.04.020] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/31/2014] [Revised: 03/20/2014] [Accepted: 04/09/2014] [Indexed: 06/03/2023]
Abstract
ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE Pogostemon cablin has been widely used in traditional Chinese medicine for the treatment of many diseases, including skin disorders. In the skin beauty and care prescriptions, Pogostemon cablin is one of the top ten frequently used traditional Chinese medicines. AIM OF THE STUDY The present study was aimed to investigate the protective effects of the essential oil of Pogostemon cablin (patchouli oil, PO) against UV-induced skin photoaging in mice. MATERIALS AND METHODS To ensure the quality of PO, the chemical compositions of PO were identified, and the content of its chemical marker patchouli alcohol was determined, which was around 28.2% (g/g) in PO. During the experiment period, the dorsal depilated skin of mice was treated with PO for two hours prior to UV irradiation. Then the protective effects of PO on UV-induced skin photoaging were determined by macroscopic and histological evaluations, skin elastic test, collagen content determination and biochemical assays of malondiaidehyde (MDA) content, activities of anti-oxidative indicators including superoxide dismutase (SOD), glutathione peroxidase (GSH-Px), and catalase (CAT). RESULTS Compared to UV exposure groups, present results showed that topical administration of PO, especially at dose of 6mg/mouse and 9mg/mouse, significantly inhibited the increase in skin wrinkle formation, alleviated the reduction in skin elasticity and increased the collagen content by about 21.9% and 26.3%, respectively. We also found that application of 6-9mg/mouse PO could not only decrease the epidermal thickness by about 32.6%, but also prevent the UV-induced disruption of collagen fibers and elastic fibers. Furthermore, the content of MDA was decreased by almost 26.5% and activities of SOD, GSH-Px and CAT were significantly up-regulated after the treatment of PO. CONCLUSION Results of present study revealed that PO was capable of maintaining skin structural integrity caused by UV irradiation and it was useful in preventing photoaging. These protective effects of PO were possibly due to its anti-oxidative property. Therefore, we suggested that PO should be viewed as a potential therapeutic agent for preventing photoaging.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rong-Feng Lin
- School of Chinese Materia Medica, Guangzhou University of Chinese Medicine, Guangzhou, People׳s Republic of China
| | - Xue-Xuan Feng
- School of Chinese Materia Medica, Guangzhou University of Chinese Medicine, Guangzhou, People׳s Republic of China
| | - Chu-Wen Li
- School of Chinese Materia Medica, Guangzhou University of Chinese Medicine, Guangzhou, People׳s Republic of China
| | - Xiao-Jun Zhang
- School of Chinese Materia Medica, Guangzhou University of Chinese Medicine, Guangzhou, People׳s Republic of China
| | - Xiu-Ting Yu
- School of Chinese Materia Medica, Guangzhou University of Chinese Medicine, Guangzhou, People׳s Republic of China
| | - Jiu-Yao Zhou
- School of Chinese Materia Medica, Guangzhou University of Chinese Medicine, Guangzhou, People׳s Republic of China
| | - Xie Zhang
- School of Chinese Materia Medica, Guangzhou University of Chinese Medicine, Guangzhou, People׳s Republic of China
| | - You-Liang Xie
- School of Chinese Materia Medica, Guangzhou University of Chinese Medicine, Guangzhou, People׳s Republic of China
| | - Zi-Ren Su
- School of Chinese Materia Medica, Guangzhou University of Chinese Medicine, Guangzhou, People׳s Republic of China.
| | - Janis Ya-Xian Zhan
- School of Chinese Materia Medica, Guangzhou University of Chinese Medicine, Guangzhou, People׳s Republic of China.
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Cha HJ, Lee KS, Lee GT, Lee KK, Hong JT, Lee SN, Jang HH, Lee JH, Park IC, Kim YR, Ahn KJ, Kwon SB, An IS, An S, Bae S. Altered miRNA expression profiles are involved in the protective effects of troxerutin against ultraviolet B radiation in normal human dermal fibroblasts. Int J Mol Med 2014; 33:957-63. [PMID: 24504083 DOI: 10.3892/ijmm.2014.1647] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/23/2013] [Accepted: 01/28/2014] [Indexed: 11/06/2022] Open
Abstract
The aim of this study was to investigate the mechanisms by which troxerutin protects cells against ultraviolet B (UVB) radiation. First, we demonstrate that pre-treatment with troxerutin protects normal human dermal fibroblasts (nHDFs) against UVB-induced cytotoxicity. As shown by migration assay and DNA repair analysis, troxerutin increased cell migration and DNA repair activity in the nHDFs. Subsequently, we analyzed microRNA (miRNA) expression profiles in the nHDFs. miRNAs are 19- to 24-nucleotide (nt) non-coding RNA molecules that regulate the translation of target genes through RNA interference. In UVB-exposed cells, miRNAs act on crucial functions, such as apoptosis and cellular senescence. miRNA expression is significantly altered during the protective process induced by phytochemicals. Therefore, understanding changes that occur in miRNA expression profiles may help to elucidate the protective mechanisms of troxerutin. We identified 11 miRNAs that were significantly (>2-fold) upregulated and 12 that were significantly downregulated (>2-fold) following treatment of the nHDFs with troxerutin. In addition, we investigated the biological functions of these miRNAs through the prediction of miRNA targets and Gene Ontology analysis of the putative targets. Overall, our findings indicate that pre-treatment with troxerutin increases the viability of UVB-exposed nHDFs through the alteration of the miRNA expression profiles.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hwa Jun Cha
- Korea Institute for Skin and Clinical Sciences and Molecular-Targeted Drug Research Center, Konkuk University, Seoul 143-701, Republic of Korea
| | - Kwang Sik Lee
- Songpa R&D Center, Coreana Cosmetics Co., Ltd., Cheonan, Chungcheongnam-do 330-833, Republic of Korea
| | - Ghang Tai Lee
- Songpa R&D Center, Coreana Cosmetics Co., Ltd., Cheonan, Chungcheongnam-do 330-833, Republic of Korea
| | - Kun Kook Lee
- Songpa R&D Center, Coreana Cosmetics Co., Ltd., Cheonan, Chungcheongnam-do 330-833, Republic of Korea
| | - Jin Tae Hong
- College of Pharmacy and Medical Research Center, Chungbuk National University, Cheongju, Chungcheongbuk‑do 361-763, Republic of Korea
| | - Sung Nae Lee
- Department of Cosmetology, Kyung-In Women's College, Incheon 407-740, Republic of Korea
| | - Hyun Hee Jang
- School of Art, Kyungbok University, Namyangju, Gyeonggi-do 472-948, Republic of Korea
| | - Jae Ho Lee
- Laboratory of Molecular Oncology, Cheil General Hospital and Women's Healthcare Center, Kwandong University College of Medicine, Seoul 100‑380, Republic of Korea
| | - In-Chul Park
- Laboratory of Functional Genomics, Korea Institute of Radiological and Medical Sciences, Seoul 139-706, Republic of Korea
| | - Yu Ri Kim
- Department of Dermatology, Konkuk University School of Medicine, Seoul 143-701, Republic of Korea
| | - Kyu Joong Ahn
- Department of Dermatology, Konkuk University School of Medicine, Seoul 143-701, Republic of Korea
| | - Seung Bin Kwon
- Korea Institute for Skin and Clinical Sciences and Molecular-Targeted Drug Research Center, Konkuk University, Seoul 143-701, Republic of Korea
| | - In-Sook An
- Korea Institute for Skin and Clinical Sciences and Molecular-Targeted Drug Research Center, Konkuk University, Seoul 143-701, Republic of Korea
| | - Sungkwan An
- Korea Institute for Skin and Clinical Sciences and Molecular-Targeted Drug Research Center, Konkuk University, Seoul 143-701, Republic of Korea
| | - Seunghee Bae
- Korea Institute for Skin and Clinical Sciences and Molecular-Targeted Drug Research Center, Konkuk University, Seoul 143-701, Republic of Korea
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Liu W, Otkur W, Zhang Y, Li Q, Ye Y, Zang L, He H, Hayashi T, Tashiro SI, Onodera S, Ikejima T. Silibinin protects murine fibroblast L929 cells from UVB-induced apoptosis through the simultaneous inhibition of ATM-p53 pathway and autophagy. FEBS J 2013; 280:4572-84. [PMID: 23829351 DOI: 10.1111/febs.12426] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/29/2013] [Revised: 07/01/2013] [Accepted: 07/03/2013] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
Abstract
Ultraviolet B (UVB) is a major cause of skin inflammation, leading to skin damage. Our previous in vivo study revealed that a natural flavonoid silibinin had marked anti-inflammatory effect on UVB-exposed murine skin. UVB exposure caused reduced autophagy in epidermis while it promoted autophagy in dermis. Nevertheless, silibinin inhibited the inflammatory flux in the skin epidermis as well as dermis through the modulation of autophagy. In order to elucidate the underlying protective mechanisms of silibinin for UVB damage on skin, separate studies on epidermis and dermis are helpful. Derived from the normal tissue of the mouse, L929 cells are capable of representing some characteristics of dermal cells. UVB irradiation caused L929 cell apoptosis in a time- and dose-dependent manner. Ataxia-telangiectasia-mutated (ATM) protein and p53 were activated to cause cell apoptosis, accompanying upregulation of the autophagic flux. The pharmacological inhibition of ATM, p53 and autophagy or the transfection with autophagy-associated protein-targeted small interfering RNAs showed that the UVB-activated ATM-p53 axis and autophagy formed a positive feedback loop, which synergistically promoted cell apoptosis. Silibinin treatment simultaneously repressed the activation of ATM-p53 and autophagy and thereby protected UVB-irradiated L929 cells from apoptotic death.
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Affiliation(s)
- Weiwei Liu
- China-Japan Research Institute of Medical and Pharmaceutical Sciences, Shenyang Pharmaceutical University, Liaoning, China
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UVA causes dual inactivation of cathepsin B and L underlying lysosomal dysfunction in human dermal fibroblasts. JOURNAL OF PHOTOCHEMISTRY AND PHOTOBIOLOGY B-BIOLOGY 2013; 123:1-12. [PMID: 23603447 DOI: 10.1016/j.jphotobiol.2013.03.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/20/2012] [Revised: 03/05/2013] [Accepted: 03/18/2013] [Indexed: 10/27/2022]
Abstract
Cutaneous exposure to chronic solar UVA-radiation is a causative factor in photocarcinogenesis and photoaging. Recently, we have identified the thiol-dependent cysteine-protease cathepsin B as a novel UVA-target undergoing photo-oxidative inactivation upstream of autophagic-lysosomal dysfunction in fibroblasts. In this study, we examined UVA effects on a wider range of cathepsins and explored the occurrence of UVA-induced cathepsin inactivation in other cultured skin cell types. In dermal fibroblasts, chronic exposure to non-cytotoxic doses of UVA caused pronounced inactivation of the lysosomal cysteine-proteases cathepsin B and L, effects not observed in primary keratinocytes and occurring only to a minor extent in primary melanocytes. In order to determine if UVA-induced lysosomal impairment requires single or dual inactivation of cathepsin B and/or L, we used a genetic approach (siRNA) to selectively downregulate enzymatic activity of these target cathepsins. Monitoring an established set of protein markers (including LAMP1, LC3-II, and p62) and cell ultrastructural changes detected by electron microscopy, we observed that only dual genetic antagonism (targeting both CTSB and CTSL expression) could mimic UVA-induced autophagic-lysosomal alterations, whereas single knockdown (targeting CTSB or CTSL only) did not display 'UVA-mimetic' effects failing to reproduce the UVA-induced phenotype. Taken together, our data demonstrate that chronic UVA inhibits both cathepsin B and L enzymatic activity and that dual inactivation of both enzymes is a causative factor underlying UVA-induced impairment of lysosomal function in dermal fibroblasts.
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