Angina and Cardiac Care

Heart Failure in Women

Heart failure (HF) in women is one of the leading causes in women after coronary artery diseases. There are gender differences at every aspect of HF. These females usually present in older age with significant comorbidities. Even though there are few risk factors common to males and females for the development of HF, diabetes and hypertension are considered more stronger association for the development of HF in females than in males. There are certain sex-specific factors such as abnormal pregnancies and breast cancer therapies in addition to genetic predisposition for the development of cardiomyopathies, especially postpartum cardiomyopathy in female. Usually, females have HF with preserved ejection fraction when compared to men who more frequently have HF due to reduced ejection fraction. Even in the left ventricular remodeling to injury is different in both sexes. The main aim of this review is to bring the sex differences in HF and to stress the need of separate guidelines for females with HF for better outcome.

Sex Differences in Ischemic Heart Disease: Advances, Obstacles, and Next Steps

Evolving knowledge of sex-specific presentations, improved recognition of conventional and novel risk factors, and expanded understanding of the sex-specific pathophysiology of ischemic heart disease have resulted in improved clinical outcomes in women. Yet, ischemic heart disease continues to be the leading cause of morbidity and mortality in women in the United States. The important publication by the Institute of Medicine titled "Women's Health Research-Progress, Pitfalls, and Promise," highlights the persistent disparities in cardiovascular disease burden among subgroups of women, particularly women who are socially disadvantaged because of race, ethnicity, income level, and educational attainment. These important health disparities reflect underrepresentation of women in research, with the resultant unfavorable impact on diagnosis, prevention, and treatment strategies in women at risk for cardiovascular disease. Causes of disparities are multifactorial and related to differences in risk factor prevalence, access to care, use of evidence-based guidelines, and social and environmental factors. Lack of awareness in both the public and medical community, as well as existing knowledge gap regarding sex-specific differences in presentation, risk factors, pathophysiology, and response to treatment for ischemic heart disease, further contribute to outcome disparities. There is a critical need for implementation of sex- and gender-specific strategies to improve cardiovascular outcomes. This review is tailored to meet the needs of a busy clinician and summarizes the contemporary trends, characterizes current sex-specific outcome disparities, delineates challenges, and proposes transformative solutions for improvement of the full spectrum of ischemic heart disease clinical care and research in women.

Impact of gender and dialysis modality on early mortality risk in diabetic ESRD patients: data from a large single center cohort

BACKGROUND

Diabetes mellitus (DM)-associated chronic kidney disease (diabetic renal disease) became the predominant etiology of the end-stage renal disease (ESRD) in the western countries and shows the same trend in the developing countries. Early mortality (EM) after the dialysis initiation, defined as death of all causes within the first 3 months after initiation of renal replacement therapy (RRT), is of concern especially for the high-risk renal patients including diabetics. The goal of the present study was to identify demographic and clinical risk factors associated with EM in a retrospective cohort of Romanian DM patients initiated on dialysis.

METHODS

A retrospective case-control study was designed. Clinical recordings from all patients initiated on hemodialysis (HD) or peritoneal dialysis between January 1996 and December 2005 in the Dialysis Center of NIDNMD Paulescu, Bucharest, were collected and analyzed. Patients were classified accordingly in two groups: those who displayed EM formed the "cases" group, while the others were included in the "controls" group. Both univariate (subgroup analysis) and multivariate analyses (logistic regression, Cox regression) were used to analyze the impact of risk factors on EM outcome.

RESULTS

Data from 788 patients were included in the analysis. The factors significantly associated with EM in the univariate analysis were female gender, late initiation (LI) of dialysis, old age and HD used as the first/only method. Applying the multivariate analysis, only the use of HD (OR = 4.20, p < 0.0001) and the LI of dialysis (p < 0.0001; 95 % CI 1.36-2.30) were associated with EM, while female gender showed only a trend to a higher EM (OR = 1.29, p = 0.052).

CONCLUSIONS

Hemodialysis used as a first/single method for RRT and the LI of dialysis were independent predictors of EM in our ESRD diabetic patients. A possible explanation for the first factor could be our specific center procedure, which allows only the HD as rescue therapy method for the most severe cases, managed in the intensive care unit.

Sex bias in cardiovascular testing: the contribution of patient preference

STUDY OBJECTIVE

Women with potential acute coronary syndromes are less likely to receive cardiac catheterization or revascularization than men. We hypothesize that this may be due to different diagnostic test preferences of female and male patients.

METHODS

We conducted a cohort study at 4 emergency departments enrolling patients who presented with symptoms of potential acute coronary syndromes. After hearing the potential benefits and harms of each test, subjects completed a 21-item survey assessing their preference for noninvasive testing versus cardiac catheterization. Based on hypothetical test results, similar questions about medical versus interventional management were asked. Subjects were also queried about likelihood of following physician recommendation for each test or intervention. Actual 30-day testing and interventions were recorded. The main outcome was patient preference about each procedure and the likelihood of patient saying they would accept the physician recommendation.

RESULTS

One thousand eighty patients enrolled; 652 (60%) were admitted to the hospital. With regard to diagnostic test preference, both women and men preferred stress test to catheterization (women 58% versus men 52%; difference 6% [95% confidence interval {CI} -0.06% to 12%]), and the proportion of women and men who would accept the physician recommendation for stress tests was similar (85% for both); however, the stated acceptance rate for cardiac catheterization was lower for women (65% versus 75%; difference -10% [95% CI -15% to -4%]). Women were 6% less likely (67% versus 73%; 95% CI for difference 12% to 0.5%) to accept percutaneous coronary intervention over medical therapy and 7% less likely (61% versus 68%; 95% CI for difference -13% to 1%) to desire coronary artery bypass grafting over medical therapy. The survey results are consistent with the patients' clinical course. During the initial hospitalization, women were less likely to receive diagnostic testing of any type (38% versus 45%; difference -7%; 95% CI for the difference -13% to -1.5%) and cardiac catheterization (10% versus 17%; difference -7% [95% CI -11% to -2%]). Revascularization was infrequent in both groups (4% versus 6%; difference -2% [95% CI -5% to 0.6%]).

CONCLUSION

Although women and men had similar preferences about cardiac diagnostic tests and treatment options, women were less likely than men to say they would accept the physician recommendation for any intervention. Patient preference may partially explain the disparity in cardiovascular testing between women and men.

Coronary artery disease: clinical presentation, diagnosis and prognosis in women

Recent advances in the field of cardiovascular medicine have not led to significant declines in case-fatality rates for women as in men. There are gender-specific differences in symptoms profile, diagnosis and treatment of coronary disease in women. For women presenting for coronary heart disease (CHD) evaluation, traditional disease management approaches that focus on detection of a 'critical stenosis' often fail to identify those women critically at-risk. Symptoms do not help physicians in differential diagnosis of chest pain in women; indeed the most common presentation of obstructive CHD in women is atypical symptoms. In 50% of the cases, non-obstructive CHD at coronary angiography, due to 'noncardiac chest pain' or coronary microvascular dysfunction is frequently reported. For these reasons, the evidence reviewed suggests that prognostic risk assessment may work relatively better than diagnostic obstructive coronary disease assessment for women.

Early warning signs of an acute myocardial infarction and their influence on symptoms during the acute phase, with comparisons by gender

BACKGROUND

Identifying early warning signs of an acute myocardial infarction (AMI) may aid in the early diagnosis of coronary artery disease.

OBJECTIVES

This study was conducted to assess early warning signs (prodromal symptoms) of AMI, with comparisons made by gender. Another aim was to determine whether these early warning signs had any influence on the patients' acute symptoms of AMI.

METHODS

This was a multicenter, cross-sectional study of Norwegian patients (aged <or=75 years) hospitalized with their first AMI. A self-administered questionnaire was used to gather information on prodromal symptoms, defined as pain in the chest, pain in the shoulder or back, radiating pain or numbness in the arms, dyspnea, and fatigue. Symptoms were reported for the year before AMI and during the acute stage. Logistic regression analyses were used to examine the association between prodromal symptoms and acute symptoms and the effect of medical history (hypertension, diabetes, and hypercholesterolemia).

RESULTS

The self-administered questionnaire had a 72% response rate; the study included 149 women and 384 men diagnosed with first-time AMI. Symptoms occurring during the year before AMI included pain in the chest in 45% (240/533), shoulder or back pain in 51% (270/533), arm pain in 38% (205/533), dyspnea in 33% (176/533), and fatigue in 62% (330/533). There were no statistically significant gender differences. The risk of experiencing chest symptoms in the acute phase was >5 times higher in women who had experienced prodromal symptoms in the chest (adjusted odds ratio [OR] = 5.11; 95% CI, 1.38-18.88) and nearly 3 times higher in men (OR = 2.80; 95% CI, 1.17-6.70). The risk of experiencing shoulder or back pain was almost 5 times higher in men with prodromal shoulder or back pain (OR = 4.96; 95% CI, 3.01-8.19), but no statistically significant association was found in women. The risk of experiencing radiating arm pain or numbness in the acute phase was more than doubled in women with prodromal arm pain (OR = 2.68; 95% CI, 1.19-6.20) and more than tripled in men with prodromal arm pain (OR = 3.11; 95% CI, 1.90-5.07). The risk of experiencing dyspnea in the acute phase was more than doubled in women with prodromal dyspnea (OR = 2.67; 95% CI, 1.25-5.71) and >5 times higher in men with prodromal dyspnea (OR = 5.73; 95% CI, 3.42-9.62). Finally, the risk of fatigue was almost tripled in women (OR = 2.97; 95% CI, 1.28-6.85) and more than doubled in men (OR = 2.51; 95% CI, 1.54-4.11). Hypertensive women, but not men, were less likely to experience chest symptoms in the acute phase (OR = 0.29; 95% CI, 0.10-0.82).

CONCLUSIONS

Almost half of the study patients (45%) experienced prodromal chest symptoms the year before their first AMI. These prodromal symptoms predicted the symptoms that occurred during the acute stage of AMI, with some differences between the sexes.

Quantitative results of baseline angiography and percutaneous coronary intervention in the COURAGE trial

BACKGROUND

COURAGE compared outcomes in stable coronary patients randomized to optimal medical therapy plus percutaneous coronary intervention (PCI) versus optimal medical therapy alone.

METHODS AND RESULTS

Angiographic data were analyzed by treatment arm, health care system (Veterans Administration, US non-Veterans Administration, Canada), and gender. Veterans Administration patients had higher prevalence of coronary artery bypass graft surgery and left ventricular ejection fraction < or =50%. Men had worse diameter stenosis of the most severe lesion, higher prevalence of prior coronary artery bypass graft surgery, lower left ventricular ejection fraction, and more 3-vessel disease that included a proximal left anterior descending lesion (P<0.0001 for all comparisons versus women). Failure to cross rate (3%) and visual angiographic success of stent procedures (97%) were similar to contemporary practice in the National Cardiovascular Data Registry. Quantitative angiographic PCI success was 93% (residual lesion <50% in-segment) and 82% (<20% in-stent), with only minor nonsignificant differences among health care systems and genders. Event rates were higher in patients with higher jeopardy scores and more severe vessel disease, but rates were similar irrespective of treatment strategy. Within the PCI plus optimal medical therapy arm, complete revascularization was associated with a trend toward lower rate of death or nonfatal myocardial infarction. Complete revascularization was similar between genders and among health care systems.

CONCLUSIONS

PCI success and completeness of revascularization did not differ significantly by health care system or gender and were similar to contemporary practice. Angiographic burden of disease affected overall event rates but not response to an initial strategy of PCI plus optimal medical therapy or optimal medical therapy alone.

Gender differences in utilization of effective cardiovascular secondary prevention: a Cleveland clinic prevention database study

BACKGROUND

Previous studies have suggested that women with cardiovascular disease may receive less aggressive care than men. Using a large cardiology database from a tertiary referral center, we sought to determine if treatment differences still persist in the current era.

METHODS

We analyzed data on 2462 patients who were referred for secondary prevention to the Preventive Cardiology Clinic at The Cleveland Clinic Foundation between 1997 and 2004. The primary objective was to evaluate use of effective secondary preventive therapies, by gender, as outlined in the ACC/AHA guidelines, such as antiplatelet therapy, beta-blockers, statins, and angiotensin-converting enzyme (ACE) inhibitors. Multivariate logistic regression analysis was performed to assess the independent effect of gender on all cause mortality.

RESULTS

Women were older (62.2 +/- 11.1 vs. 59.4 +/- 11.0, p < 0.001) and more likely to be hypertensive (68.1% vs. 56.1%, p < 0.001) than men. Overall, women were more likely than men to have higher baseline C-reactive protein (CRP) (6.14 +/- 13.4 vs. 4.9 +/- 10.7, p < 0.001), low-density lipoprotein cholesterol (LDL-C) (135 +/- 66 vs. 116 +/- 46, p < 0.001), high-density lipoprotein cholesterol (HDL-C) (52 +/- 17 vs. 41 +/- 11, p < 0.001), and total cholesterol (238 +/- 98 vs. 202 +/- 65, p < 0.001). Women were less likely to be on antiplatelet therapy (76.6 % vs. 85.0%, p < 0.001) and statins or any lipid-lowering therapy (62.6% vs. 67.1%, p = 0.04) compared with men on presentation.

CONCLUSIONS

Even in the current era, women with established cardiovascular disease continue to receive less aggressive care than men. They are less likely to be on aspirin and statin therapy. More aggressive efforts should be made to treat both men and women with standard secondary preventive efforts.

Mortality following myocardial infarction in women and men: an analysis of insurance claims data from inpatient hospitalizations

INTRODUCTION

The results of previous studies of the association between gender and mortality following hospital admission due to acute myocardial infarction are inconsistent. National data for Germany have been lacking to date. Hence the objective of this study was to analyze this association on the basis of a nationwide dataset.

METHODS

The analysis was carried out using insurance claims data from inpatients insured by the statutory health insurer AOK, whose main diagnosis was acute myocardial infarction and who were discharged from hospital in the years 2004 and 2005. Several mortality endpoints were used, including 30-day mortality and one-year mortality.

RESULTS

132 774 male and female patients were included. Crude analyses showed a pronounced excess mortality in women (odds ratio 30-day mortality = 1.65; 95% confidence interval = 1.59 to 1.70). However, after adjustment for age (in decentiles) practically equal mortality was observed for female and male patients (odds ratio 30-day mortality = 1.00; 95% confidence interval = 0.96 to 1.03). Only in the comparatively small group of male and female patients up to the age of 50 was a slightly increased mortality observed in women (odds ratio 30-day mortality = 1.09; 95% confidence interval = 0.85 to 1.40).

DISCUSSION

To our knowledge, this study is the first nationwide analysis focusing on the association between gender and survival following hospital admission due to acute myocardial infarction. Different results from earlier regional studies may be explained by selection bias or inadequate risk adjustment.

Gender differences in the clinical management of patients with angina pectoris: a cross-sectional survey in primary care

Background

Previous research suggests that women admitted to hospital with acute myocardial infarction (MI) are managed less intensively than men. Chronic stable angina is the commonest clinical manifestation of coronary heart disease in the community, but little information is available concerning its contemporary clinical management. The aim of this study is to assess the extent of gender differences in the clinical management of angina pectoris in primary care.

Methods

A cross-sectional survey undertaken in 8 sentinel centres serving 63,724 individuals in the city of Liverpool (15% of the city population). Aspects of clinical care assessed included: risk factor recording (smoking, cholesterol, blood pressure, body mass index); secondary prevention (aspirin, beta-blocker, statin); cardiac investigation (exercise ECG, perfusion scanning, angiography); and revascularisation (percutaneous coronary intervention, coronary artery bypass grafting). Male-to-female adjusted odds ratios (AOR) were calculated (adjusted for age, angina duration, age at diagnosis and previous MI) using logistic regression.

Results

1,162 patients (610 men; 552 women) with angina were identified. Women were older than men (71 vs 67 years), with a shorter duration of angina (6 vs 7 years), and a lower prevalence of previous MI (25% vs 43%). Men were significantly more likely than women to undergo detailed risk factor assessment (AOR = 1.35, 95%CI 1.06 to 1.73); receive 'triple' secondary prevention with aspirin, beta-blockers and statins (AOR = 1.47, 95%CI 1.07 to 2.02); access exercise ECG testing (AOR = 1.31, 95%CI 1.02 to 1.68); angiography (AOR = 1.61, 95%CI 1.23 to 2.12); and undergo coronary revascularisation (AOR = 1.93, 95%CI 1.39 to 2.68).

Conclusion

Systematic gender differences exist in the comprehensive clinical management of patients with angina in primary care.

Effects of Ad5FGF-4 in patients with angina: an analysis of pooled data from the AGENT-3 and AGENT-4 trials

OBJECTIVES

The goal of this study was to explore the effects of angiogenic gene therapy.

BACKGROUND

Preclinical studies with intracoronary administration of Ad5FGF-4 (alferminogene tadenovec, Generx, Berlex Biosciences, Richmond, California) suggested it could induce angiogenesis and provide a new clinical approach to the treatment of chronic angina pectoris. Two preliminary clinical trials provided evidence that it could improve exercise treadmill test (ETT) time and myocardial perfusion. The AGENT (Angiogenic GENe Therapy)-3 and -4 trials of a low and high dose of Ad5FGF-4 for chronic angina were initiated in the U.S. and other countries and enrolled 532 patients in a randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled fashion. Both studies were halted when an interim analysis of the AGENT-3 trial indicated that the primary end point change from baseline in total ETT time at 12 weeks would not reach significance.

METHODS

We performed a pooled data analysis from the 2 nearly identical trials to investigate possible treatment effects on primary and secondary end points in prespecified subgroups.

RESULTS

The effect of placebo was large and not different than active treatment in men, but the placebo effect in women was negligible and the treatment effect was significantly greater than placebo. We found a significant, gender-specific beneficial effect of Ad5FGF-4 on total ETT time, time to 1 mm ST-segment depression, time to angina, and Canadian Cardiovascular Society class in women. This is the first clinical report of a gender difference in response to cardiac angiogenic therapy.

CONCLUSIONS

The potential importance of the observed gender-specific angiogenic response on the clinical treatment of refractory angina is substantial and deserves further investigation. (Efficacy and Safety of Intracoronary Ad5FGF-4 in Patients With Stable Angina; http://www.clinicaltrials.gov/ct/show/NCT00346437; NCT00346437) (Safety and Efficacy of Intracoronary Ad5FGF-4 in Patients With Stable Angina [AGENT-4]; http://www.clinicaltrials.gov/ct/show/NCT00185263; NCT00185263) (AWARE; http://www.clinicaltrials.gov/ct/show/NCT000438867; NCT000438867).