ATIC-Associated De Novo Purine Synthesis Is Critically Involved in Proliferative Arterial Disease

Activation of Imprinted Gene PW1 Promotes Cardiac Fibrosis After Ischemic Injury

BACKGROUND

Cardiac fibrosis, characterized by excessive extracellular matrix (ECM) deposition in the myocardium, is an important target for heart disease treatments. Pw1 (paternally expressed gene 3) is an imprinted gene expressed from the paternal allele, and de novo purine biosynthesis (DNPB) is a crucial pathway for nucleotide synthesis. However, the roles of PW1 and DNPB in ECM production by cardiac fibroblasts during myocardial ischemia are not yet understood.

METHODS

To induce myocardial damage, we performed left anterior descending coronary artery ligation. We generated Pw1CreER-2A-eGFP and Pw12A-CreER knock-in mouse lines to evaluate the expression of the 2 Pw1 alleles in normal and injured hearts. Bisulfite sequencing was used to analyze the DNA methylation of the Pw1 imprinting control region. We identified the phosphoribosylformylglycinamidine synthase (Pfas) gene, encoding the DNPB enzyme PFAS, as a direct target of PW1 using chromatin immunoprecipitation sequencing and real-time quantitative polymerase chain reaction. The role of DNPB in ECM production and cardiac fibrosis after injury was examined in vitro using cultured cardiac fibroblasts and in vivo with Pfas-deficient mice.

RESULTS

Our study demonstrates that myocardial infarction reduces DNA methylation at the imprinting control region of the maternally imprinted gene Pw1, triggering a switch from monoallelic imprinting to biallelic expression of Pw1 in cardiac fibroblasts. In activated cardiac fibroblasts, increased Pw1 expression promotes purine biosynthesis and induces ECM production by transcriptionally activating the DNPB factor Pfas. We identified that DNPB is essential for ECM production in activated fibroblasts and that loss of Pfas in fibroblasts limits cardiac fibrosis and improves heart function after injury.

CONCLUSIONS

This study demonstrates that Pw1 imprinting is disrupted after injury and reveals a novel role for the downstream target PFAS in ECM production and cardiac fibrogenesis. Targeting the PW1/PFAS signaling pathway presents a promising therapeutic strategy for improving cardiac repair after injury.

TTK Inhibition Alleviates Postinjury Neointimal Formation and Atherosclerosis

Atherosclerosis and its associated cardio-cerebrovascular complications remain the leading causes of mortality worldwide. Current lipid-lowering therapies reduce only approximately one-third of the cardiovascular risk. Furthermore, vascular restenosis and thrombotic events following surgical interventions for severe vascular stenosis significantly contribute to treatment failure. This highlights the urgent need for novel therapeutic targets to manage atherosclerosis and prevent restenosis and thrombosis after vascular injury. This study identifies TTK protein kinase (TTK) as a key regulator of vascular smooth muscle cell (VSMC) phenotypic switching in the context of postinjury neointimal formation and atherosclerosis. Mechanistically, TTK upregulation in VSMCs phosphorylates p120-catenin, leading to β-catenin nuclear accumulation and dissociation of the myocardin (MYOCD)/serum response factor (SRF) complex. Deletion of TTK specifically in VSMCs reduces postinjury neointimal formation in vascular injury models and attenuates atherosclerotic lesions in ApoE-/- mice. Notably, oral administration of the TTK inhibitor CFI-402257 mitigated neointimal formation without impairing reendothelialization and reduced atherosclerotic lesions in ApoE-/- mice without altering lipid levels. These findings suggest that targeting TTK, through inhibitors or alternative strategies, represents a promising approach to simultaneously prevent postinjury restenosis and treat atherosclerosis.

Smooth muscle cell-specific CD47 deletion suppresses atherosclerosis

BACKGROUND

Recent smooth muscle cell (SMC)-lineage tracing and single-cell RNA sequencing (scRNA-seq) experiments revealed a significant role of SMC-derived cells in atherosclerosis development. Further, thrombospondin-1 (TSP1), a matricellular protein, and activation of its receptor cluster of differentiation (CD) 47 have been linked with atherosclerosis. However, the role of vascular SMC TSP1-CD47 signaling in regulating VSMC phenotype and atherogenesis remains unknown.

METHODS

We investigated the role of SMC CD47 activation by TSP1 in regulating VSMC phenotype and atherosclerosis development using various in vitro cell-based assays, molecular biological techniques, immunohistological approaches, reanalysis of publicly available scRNA-seq data, and cell-specific knockout mice.

RESULTS

We observed elevated TSP1 expression in human atherosclerotic vascular tissues and VSMCs. TSP1-treated VSMCs exhibited decreased expression of contractile SMC markers (ACTA2, CNN1, and TAGLN) and increased proliferation. Additional experiments and reanalysis of the scRNA-seq dataset showed CD47 as the major TSP1 receptor in VSMCs, with its expression increased in SMC-derived modulated cells of murine atherosclerotic arteries. Knockdown of CD47 gene in human VSMCs upregulated expression of contractile SMC markers and abrogated TSP1's effects on these genes. SMC-specific Cd47 deletion in mice suppressed atherosclerotic lesion formation, reduced macrophage accumulation, and decreased necrotic area. However, no significant differences were observed in weight gain, liver and adipose tissue mass, plasma total cholesterol, and fasting blood glucose between control and SMC-restricted Cd47-deficient mice. Further experiments demonstrated increased efferocytosis of apoptotic CD47-silenced VSMCs by macrophages.

CONCLUSIONS

These findings suggest that CD47 plays a crucial role in regulating VSMC phenotype, and SMC-specific-Cd47 deletion suppresses atherosclerosis.

NEW AND NOTEWORTHY

VSMC phenotypic switching contributes to atherosclerosis development. The present study reports the novel observations that Cd47 levels are upregulated in phenotypically modulated SMCs within atherosclerotic arteries and targeted deletion of Cd47 specifically in SMCs attenuates atherosclerosis. Mechanistic in vitro investigations further showed that TSP1-CD47 signaling regulates VSMC phenotype. Therefore, targeting SMC CD47 represents a promising therapeutic target to suppress atherogenesis.

Adventitial Injection of Hyaluronic Acid/Sodium Alginate Hydrogel Loaded With IL-33 Antibody Decreases Neointimal Hyperplasia

INTRODUCTION

Neointimal hyperplasia is one of the persistent complications after vascular interventions, and is the major cause of treatment failure. Interleukin-33 (IL-33) emerges as a crucial factor in many biological processes and plays an important role in vascular diseases. Adventitial injection is catching attention for its effectiveness and fewer side effects. We hypothesize that targeting IL-33 by adventitial injection can be a therapeutic method to inhibit neointimal hyperplasia.

METHOD

IL-33 expression was examined in human vein graft. The hydrogel was fabricated by the interaction of hyaluronic acid, sodium alginate, and CaCO3; and phosphate buffered saline (PBS) or IL-33 antibody or recombinant IL-33 was mixed within the hydrogel uniformly. A rat aortic wire injury-induced neointimal hyperplasia model was developed; rats were divided into three groups and received an adventitial injection of a hydrogel loaded with PBS or IL-33 antibody or recombinant IL-33 after wire injury. Tissues were harvested at day 21 and analyzed by histology and immunohistochemical staining. Hydrogel loaded with PBS, IL-33 antibody, or IL-33 was also used in a mouse carotid artery ligation neointimal hyperplasia model.

RESULT

There was a high expression of IL-33 in human vein graft neointima. Hydrogel can be successfully injected into the aortic wall and is encapsulated by the adventitia. The hydrogel could be seen beneath the adventitia after adventitial injection and was partly degraded at day 21. There was a significantly thinner neointimal thickness and less proliferation and inflammation in the IL-33 antibody group compared to the control group. On the contrary, the IL-33 group has a thicker neointima, increased proliferation, and inflammation. The mouse carotid artery ligation model showed similar results.

CONCLUSIONS

IL-33 plays a role in arterial neointimal hyperplasia in both human and rodent models; adventitial injection of hydrogel loaded with IL-33 antibody can effectively decrease neointimal thickness. Neutralizing IL-33 by IL-33 antibody may be a potential therapeutic method to inhibit intimal hyperplasia after vascular interventions.

The de novo purine synthesis enzyme Adssl1 promotes cardiomyocyte proliferation and cardiac regeneration

There is a short window during which the neonatal heart has the proliferative capacity to completely repair damage, an ability that is lost in adulthood. Inducing proliferation in adult cardiomyocytes by reactivating cell cycle reentry after myocardial infarction (MI) improves cardiac function. De novo purine synthesis is a critical source of nucleotides for cell proliferation. Here, using loss- and gain-of-function genetic approaches, we explored the role of the muscle-specific de novo purine synthesis enzyme Adssl1 in cardiac regeneration. Deletion of Adssl1 in mouse neonatal hearts reduced cardiomyocyte proliferation and attenuated heart regeneration after apical resection. Conversely, cardiomyocyte-specific Adssl1 overexpression extended the postnatal regenerative window and induced robust cell cycle reentry after MI, which decreased fibrotic scar size and improved cardiac function. RNA sequencing analysis suggested that Adssl1 overexpression induced strong dedifferentiation and cell cycle entry. Moreover, LC-MS/MS analysis showed that Adssl1 overexpression was associated with increased amounts of purine metabolites, including inosine, which is in clinical use. Administration of exogenous inosine promoted cardiac repair after MI in adult mice. At a molecular level, the increase in purine metabolite production mediated by Adssl1 enhanced the activity of the proliferation-promoting mTORC1 pathway. Our study identifies a role for Adssl1 in supporting cardiomyocyte proliferation and cardiac regeneration.

Targeting the smooth muscle cell Keap1-Nrf2-GSDMD-pyroptosis axis by cryptotanshinone prevents abdominal aortic aneurysm formation

Rationale: Abdominal aortic aneurysm (AAA) is an inflammatory, fatal aortic disease that currently lacks any effective drugs. Cryptotanshinone (CTS) is a prominent and inexpensive bioactive substance derived from Salvia miltiorrhiza Bunge, a well-known medicinal herb for treating cardiovascular diseases through its potent anti-inflammatory properties. Nevertheless, the therapeutic effect of CTS on AAA formation remains unknown. Methods: To investigate the therapeutic effect of CTS in AAA, variety of experimental approaches were employed, majorly including AAA mouse model establishment, real-time polymerase chain reaction (PCR), RNA sequencing, western blot, co-immunoprecipitation, scanning/transmission electron microscopy (SEM/TEM), enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA), seahorse analysis, immunohistochemistry, and confocal imaging. Results: In this study, we demonstrated that CTS suppressed the formation of AAA in apolipoprotein E knock-out (ApoE-/-) mice infused with Ang II. A combination of network pharmacology and whole transcriptome sequencing analysis indicated that activation of the Keap1-Nrf2 pathway and regulation of programmed cell death in vascular smooth muscle cells (VSMCs) are closely linked to the anti-AAA effect of CTS. Mechanistically, CTS promoted the transcription of Nrf2 target genes, particularly Hmox-1, which prevented the activation of NLRP3 and GSDMD-initiated pyroptosis in VSMCs, thereby mitigating VSMC inflammation and maintaining the VSMC contractile phenotype. Subsequently, by utilizing molecular docking, together with the cellular thermal shift assay (CETSA) and isothermal titration calorimetry (ITC), a particular binding site was established between CTS and Keap1 at Arg415. To confirm the binding site, site-directed mutagenesis was performed, which intriguingly showed that the Arg415 mutation eliminated the binding between CTS and the Keap1-Nrf2 protein and abrogated the antioxidant and anti-pyroptosis effects of CTS. Furthermore, VSMC-specific Nrf2 knockdown in mice dramatically reversed the protective action of CTS in AAA and the inhibitory effect of CTS on VSMC pyroptosis. Conclusion: Naturally derived CTS exhibits promising efficacy as a treatment drug for AAA through its targeting of the Keap1-Nrf2-GSDMD-pyroptosis axis in VSMCs.

5-Aminoimidazole-4-carboxamide ribonucleotide formyltransferase/inosine monophosphate cyclohydrolase promotes pulmonary arterial smooth muscle cell proliferation via the Ras signaling pathway

Pulmonary arterial hypertension (PAH) is a debilitating vascular disorder characterized by abnormal pulmonary artery smooth muscle cell (PASMC) proliferation and collagen synthesis, contributing to vascular remodeling and elevated pulmonary vascular resistance. This study investigated the critical role of 5-aminoimidazole-4-carboxamide ribonucleotide formyltransferase/inosine monophosphate cyclohydrolase (ATIC) in cell proliferation and collagen synthesis in PASMCs in PAH. Here we show that ATIC levels are significantly increased in the lungs of monocrotaline (MCT)-induced PAH rat model, hypoxia-induced PAH mouse model, and platelet-derived growth factor (PDGF)-stimulated PASMCs. Inhibition of ATIC attenuated PDGF-induced cell proliferation and collagen I synthesis in PASMCs. Conversely, overexpression or knockdown of ATIC causes a significant promotion or inhibition of Ras and ERK activation, cell proliferation, and collagen synthesis in PASMCs. Moreover, ATIC deficiency attenuated Ras activation in the lungs of hypoxia-induced PAH mice. Furthermore, Ras inhibition attenuates ATIC overexpression- and PDGF-induced collagen synthesis and PASMC proliferation. Notably, we identified that transcription factors MYC, early growth response protein 1 (EGR1), and specificity protein 1 (SP1) directly binds to promoters of Atic gene and regulate ATIC expression. These results provide the first evidence that ATIC promotes PASMC proliferation in pulmonary vascular remodeling through the Ras signaling pathway.NEW & NOTEWORTHY Our findings highlight the important role of ATIC in the PASMC proliferation of pulmonary vascular remodeling through its modulation of the Ras signaling pathway and its regulation by transcription factors MYC, EGR1, and SP1. ATIC's modulation of Ras signal pathway represents a novel mechanism contributing to PAH development.

BRCC36 regulates β-catenin ubiquitination to alleviate vascular calcification in chronic kidney disease

BACKGROUND

The prevalence of vascular calcification (VC) in chronic kidney disease (CKD) patients remains substantial, but currently, there are no effective pharmaceutical therapies available. BRCA1/BRCA2-containing complex subunit 36 (BRCC36) has been implicated in osteoblast osteogenic conversion; however, its specific role in VC remains to be fully elucidated. The aim of this study was to investigate the role and underlying mechanisms of BRCC36 in VC.

METHODS

The association between BRCC36 expression and VC was examined in radial arteries from patients with CKD, high-adenine-induced CKD mice, and vascular smooth muscle cells (VSMCs). Western blotting, real-time polymerase chain reaction, immunofluorescence, and immunohistochemistry were used to analyse gene expression. Gain- and loss-of-function experiments were performed to comprehensively investigate the effects of BRCC36 on VC. Coimmunoprecipitation and TOPFlash luciferase assays were utilized to further investigate the regulatory effects of BRCC36 on the Wnt/β-catenin pathway.

RESULTS

BRCC36 expression was downregulated in human calcified radial arteries, calcified aortas from CKD mice, and calcified VSMCs. VSMC-specific BRCC36 overexpression alleviated calcium deposition in the vasculature, whereas BRCC36 depletion aggravated VC progression. Furthermore, BRCC36 inhibited the osteogenic differentiation of VSMCs in vitro. Rescue experiments revealed that BRCC36 exerts the protective effects on VC partly by regulating the Wnt/β-catenin signalling pathway. Mechanistically, BRCC36 inhibited the Wnt/β-catenin pathway by decreasing the K63-linked ubiquitination of β-catenin. Additionally, pioglitazone attenuated VC partly through upregulating BRCC36 expression.

CONCLUSIONS

Our research results emphasize the critical role of the BRCC36-β-catenin axis in VC, suggesting that BRCC36 or β-catenin may be promising therapeutic targets to prevent the progression of VC in CKD patients.

Exploring the anticancer mechanism of cardiac glycosides using proteome integral solubility alteration approach

BACKGROUND AND AIMS

Cardiac glycosides (CGs), traditionally used for heart failure, have shown potential as anti-cancer agents. This study aims to explore their multifaceted mechanisms in cancer cell biology using proteome integral solubility alteration (PISA), focusing on the interaction with key proteins implicated in cellular metabolism and mitochondrial function.

METHODS

We conducted lysate-based and intact-cell PISA assays on cancer cells treated with CGs (Digoxin, Digitoxin, Ouabain) to analyze protein solubility changes. This was followed by mass spectrometric analysis and bioinformatics to identify differentially soluble proteins (DSPs). Molecular docking simulations were performed to predict protein-CG interactions. Public data including gene expression changes upon CG treatment were re-analyzed for validation.

RESULTS

The PISA assays revealed CGs' broad-spectrum interactions, particularly affecting proteins like PKM2, ANXA2, SLC16A1, GOT2 and GLUD1. Molecular docking confirmed stable interactions between CGs and these DSPs. Re-analysis of public data supported the impact of CGs on cancer metabolism and cell signaling pathways.

CONCLUSION

Our findings suggest that CGs could be repurposed for cancer therapy by modulating cellular processes. The PISA data provide insights into the polypharmacological effects of CGs, warranting further exploration of their mechanisms and clinical potential.

Inositol 1,4,5-Trisphosphate Receptors Regulate Vascular Smooth Muscle Cell Proliferation and Neointima Formation in Mice

BACKGROUND

Vascular smooth muscle cell (VSMC) proliferation is involved in many types of arterial diseases, including neointima hyperplasia, in which Ca2+ has been recognized as a key player. However, the physiological role of Ca2+ release via inositol 1,4,5-trisphosphate receptors (IP3Rs) from endoplasmic reticulum in regulating VSMC proliferation has not been well determined.

METHODS AND RESULTS

Both in vitro cell culture models and in vivo mouse models were generated to investigate the role of IP3Rs in regulating VSMC proliferation. Expression of all 3 IP3R subtypes was increased in cultured VSMCs upon platelet-derived growth factor-BB and FBS stimulation as well as in the left carotid artery undergoing intimal thickening after vascular occlusion. Genetic ablation of all 3 IP3R subtypes abolished endoplasmic reticulum Ca2+ release in cultured VSMCs, significantly reduced cell proliferation induced by platelet-derived growth factor-BB and FBS stimulation, and also decreased cell migration of VSMCs. Furthermore, smooth muscle-specific deletion of all IP3R subtypes in adult mice dramatically attenuated neointima formation induced by left carotid artery ligation, accompanied by significant decreases in cell proliferation and matrix metalloproteinase-9 expression in injured vessels. Mechanistically, IP3R-mediated Ca2+ release may activate cAMP response element-binding protein, a key player in controlling VSMC proliferation, via Ca2+/calmodulin-dependent protein kinase II and Akt. Loss of IP3Rs suppressed cAMP response element-binding protein phosphorylation at Ser133 in both cultured VSMCs and injured vessels, whereas application of Ca2+ permeable ionophore, ionomycin, can reverse cAMP response element-binding protein phosphorylation in IP3R triple knockout VSMCs.

CONCLUSIONS

Our results demonstrated an essential role of IP3R-mediated Ca2+ release from endoplasmic reticulum in regulating cAMP response element-binding protein activation, VSMC proliferation, and neointima formation in mouse arteries.

The role of 6-phosphogluconate dehydrogenase in vascular smooth muscle cell phenotypic switching and angioplasty-induced intimal hyperplasia

Background

Restenosis poses a significant challenge for individuals afflicted with peripheral artery diseases, often leading to considerable morbidity and necessitating repeated interventions. The primary culprit behind the pathogenesis of restenosis is intimal hyperplasia (IH), in which the hyperproliferative and migratory vascular smooth muscle cell (VSMC) accumulate excessively in the tunica intima. 6-Phosphogluconate dehydrogenase (6PGD), sometimes referred to as PGD, is one of the critical enzymes in pentose phosphate pathway (PPP). In this study, we sought to probe whether 6PGD is aberrantly regulated in IH and contributes to VSMC phenotypic switching.

Methods

We used clinical specimens of diseased human coronary arteries with IH lesions and observed robust upregulation of 6PGD at protein level in both the medial and intimal layers in comparison with healthy arterial segments.

Results

6PGD activity and protein expression were profoundly stimulated upon platelet-derived growth factor-induced VSMC phenotypic switching. Using gain-of-function (dCas9-mediated transcriptional activation) and loss-of-function (small interfering RNA-mediated) silencing, we were able to demonstrate the pathogenic role of 6PGD in driving VSMC hyperproliferation, migration, dedifferentiation, and inflammation. Finally, we conducted a rat model of balloon angioplasty in the common carotid artery, with Pluronic hydrogel-assisted perivascular delivery of Physcion, a selective 6PGD inhibitor with poor systemic bioavailability, and observed effective mitigation of IH.

Conclusions

We contend that aberrant 6PGD expression and activity-indicative of a metabolic shift toward pentose phosphate pathway-could serve as a new disease-driving mechanism and, hence, an actionable target for the development of effective new therapies for IH and restenosis after endovascular interventions.

Targeting the smooth muscle cell KEAP1-Nrf2-STING axis with pterostilbene attenuates abdominal aortic aneurysm

BACKGROUND

Abdominal aortic aneurysm (AAA) is a life-threatening aortic disease, and to date, there are currently no effective pharmacological treatments to address this condition. Activation of cytosolic DNA sensing adaptor stimulator of interferon genes (STING) signaling is a crucial mechanism in AAA formation.

PURPOSE

This study investigated pterostilbene (Pt), a naturally occurring polyphenol and resveratrol analogue, as a STING inhibitor for preventing AAA.

METHODS

We evaluated the effect of Pt on AAA formation in angiotensin II (AngII)-infused apolipoprotein E-deficient (ApoE-/-) mice. We used histological analysis, MMP activity measurement, western blot, and immunohistochemistry to detect AAA formation and development. We applied RNA sequencing, molecular docking, cellular thermal shift assay (CETSA) and functional studies to dissect the molecular mechanism of Pt-regulating KEAP1-Nrf2-STING signaling. We conditionally knocked down Nrf2 in vascular smooth muscle cells (VSMCs) in vivo to investigate its role in Pt-mediated protective effects on AAA.

RESULTS

Pt effectively blocked the formation of AAA in AngII-infused ApoE-/- mice. Whole transcriptome sequencing analysis revealed that nuclear factor erythroid 2-related factor 2 (Nrf2) and STING pathway in VSMCs were linked to the anti-AAA effects of pterostilbene. Mechanistically, Pt upregulated Nrf2 target genes (e.g., HO-1 and NQO1) through activation of the KEAP1/Nrf2 signaling, which restricted the immunostimulatory axis of mtDNA-STING-TBK1-NF-κB, thereby alleviating VSMC inflammation and preserving the VSMC contractile phenotype. Subsequently, molecular docking and CETSA revealed a binding mode between Pt and KEAP1/Nrf2. Intriguingly, the inhibitory effect of Pt on STING signaling and the protective role of Pt in AAA were largely abrogated by VSMC-specific Nrf2 knockdown in mice.

CONCLUSION

Collectively, naturally derived Pt shows promising efficacy for the treatment of AAA by targeting the KEAP1-Nrf2-STING axis in VSMCs.

Engineering Nanoplatforms for Theranostics of Atherosclerotic Plaques

Atherosclerotic plaque formation is considered the primary pathological mechanism underlying atherosclerotic cardiovascular diseases, leading to severe cardiovascular events such as stroke, acute coronary syndromes, and even sudden cardiac death. Early detection and timely intervention of plaques are challenging due to the lack of typical symptoms in the initial stages. Therefore, precise early detection and intervention play a crucial role in risk stratification of atherosclerotic plaques and achieving favorable post-interventional outcomes. The continuously advancing nanoplatforms have demonstrated numerous advantages including high signal-to-noise ratio, enhanced bioavailability, and specific targeting capabilities for imaging agents and therapeutic drugs, enabling effective visualization and management of atherosclerotic plaques. Motivated by these superior properties, various noninvasive imaging modalities for early recognition of plaques in the preliminary stage of atherosclerosis are comprehensively summarized. Additionally, several therapeutic strategies are proposed to enhance the efficacy of treating atherosclerotic plaques. Finally, existing challenges and promising prospects for accelerating clinical translation of nanoplatform-based molecular imaging and therapy for atherosclerotic plaques are discussed. In conclusion, this review provides an insightful perspective on the diagnosis and therapy of atherosclerotic plaques.

Spermidine attenuates monocrotaline-induced pulmonary arterial hypertension in rats by inhibiting purine metabolism and polyamine synthesis-associated vascular remodeling

Ensuring the homeostatic integrity of pulmonary artery endothelial cells (PAECs) is essential for combatting pulmonary arterial hypertension (PAH), as it equips the cells to withstand microenvironmental challenges. Spermidine (SPD), a potent facilitator of autophagy, has been identified as a significant contributor to PAECs function and survival. Despite SPD's observed benefits, a comprehensive understanding of its protective mechanisms has remained elusive. Through an integrated approach combining metabolomics and molecular biology, this study uncovers the molecular pathways employed by SPD in mitigating PAH induced by monocrotaline (MCT) in a Sprague-Dawley rat model. The study demonstrates that SPD administration (5 mg/kg/day) significantly corrects right ventricular impairment and pathological changes in pulmonary tissues following MCT exposure (60 mg/kg). Metabolomic profiling identified a purine metabolism disorder in MCT-treated rats, which SPD effectively normalized, conferring a protective effect against PAH progression. Subsequent in vitro analysis showed that SPD (0.8 mM) reduces oxidative stress and apoptosis in PAECs challenged with Dehydromonocrotaline (MCTP, 50 μM), likely by downregulating purine nucleoside phosphorylase (PNP) and modulating polyamine biosynthesis through alterations in S-adenosylmethionine decarboxylase (AMD1) expression and the subsequent production of decarboxylated S-adenosylmethionine (dcSAM). These findings advocate SPD's dual inhibitory effect on PNP and AMD1 as a novel strategy to conserve cellular ATP and alleviate oxidative injuries, thus providing a foundation for SPD's potential therapeutic application in PAH treatment.

Inactivation of adenosine receptor 2A suppresses endothelial-to-mesenchymal transition and inhibits subretinal fibrosis in mice

Anti-vascular endothelial growth factor therapy has had a substantial impact on the treatment of choroidal neovascularization (CNV) in patients with neovascular age-related macular degeneration (nAMD), the leading cause of vision loss in older adults. Despite treatment, many patients with nAMD still develop severe and irreversible visual impairment because of the development of subretinal fibrosis. We recently reported the anti-inflammatory and antiangiogenic effects of inhibiting the gene encoding adenosine receptor 2A (Adora2a), which has been implicated in cardiovascular disease. Here, using two mouse models of subretinal fibrosis (mice with laser injury-induced CNV or mice with a deficiency in the very low-density lipoprotein receptor), we found that deletion of Adora2a either globally or specifically in endothelial cells reduced subretinal fibrosis independently of angiogenesis. We showed that Adora2a-dependent endothelial-to-mesenchymal transition contributed to the development of subretinal fibrosis in mice with laser injury-induced CNV. Deficiency of Adora2a in cultured mouse and human choroidal endothelial cells suppressed induction of the endothelial-to-mesenchymal transition. A metabolomics analysis of cultured human choroidal endothelial cells showed that ADORA2A knockdown with an siRNA reversed the increase in succinate because of decreased succinate dehydrogenase B expression under fibrotic conditions. Pharmacological inhibition of ADORA2A with a small-molecule KW6002 in both mouse models recapitulated the reduction in subretinal fibrosis observed in mice with genetic deletion of Adora2a. ADORA2A inhibition may be a therapeutic approach to treat subretinal fibrosis associated with nAMD.

Myeloid PFKFB3-mediated glycolysis promotes kidney fibrosis

Excessive renal fibrosis is a common pathology in progressive chronic kidney diseases. Inflammatory injury and aberrant repair processes contribute to the development of kidney fibrosis. Myeloid cells, particularly monocytes/macrophages, play a crucial role in kidney fibrosis by releasing their proinflammatory cytokines and extracellular matrix components such as collagen and fibronectin into the microenvironment of the injured kidney. Numerous signaling pathways have been identified in relation to these activities. However, the involvement of metabolic pathways in myeloid cell functions during the development of renal fibrosis remains understudied. In our study, we initially reanalyzed single-cell RNA sequencing data of renal myeloid cells from Dr. Denby's group and observed an increased gene expression in glycolytic pathway in myeloid cells that are critical for renal inflammation and fibrosis. To investigate the role of myeloid glycolysis in renal fibrosis, we utilized a model of unilateral ureteral obstruction in mice deficient of Pfkfb3, an activator of glycolysis, in myeloid cells (Pfkfb3 ΔMϕ ) and their wild type littermates (Pfkfb3 WT). We observed a significant reduction in fibrosis in the obstructive kidneys of Pfkfb3 ΔMϕ mice compared to Pfkfb3 WT mice. This was accompanied by a substantial decrease in macrophage infiltration, as well as a decrease of M1 and M2 macrophages and a suppression of macrophage to obtain myofibroblast phenotype in the obstructive kidneys of Pfkfb3 ΔMϕ mice. Mechanistic studies indicate that glycolytic metabolites stabilize HIF1α, leading to alterations in macrophage phenotype that contribute to renal fibrosis. In conclusion, our study implicates that targeting myeloid glycolysis represents a novel approach to inhibit renal fibrosis.

PFKFB3-Mediated Glycolysis Boosts Fibroblast Activation and Subsequent Kidney Fibrosis

Renal fibrosis, a hallmark of chronic kidney diseases, is driven by the activation of renal fibroblasts. Recent studies have highlighted the role of glycolysis in this process. Nevertheless, one critical glycolytic activator, 6-phosphofructo-2-kinase/fructose-2,6-bisphosphatase 3 (PFKFB3), remains unexplored in renal fibrosis. Upon reanalyzing the single-cell sequencing data from Dr. Humphreys' lab, we noticed an upregulation of glycolysis, gluconeogenesis, and the TGFβ signaling pathway in myofibroblasts from fibrotic kidneys after unilateral ureter obstruction (UUO) or kidney ischemia/reperfusion. Furthermore, our experiments showed significant induction of PFKFB3 in mouse kidneys following UUO or kidney ischemia/reperfusion. To delve deeper into the role of PFKFB3, we generated mice with Pfkfb3 deficiency, specifically in myofibroblasts (Pfkfb3f/f/PostnMCM). Following UUO or kidney ischemia/reperfusion, a substantial decrease in fibrosis in the injured kidneys of Pfkfb3f/f/PostnMCM mice was identified compared to their wild-type littermates. Additionally, in cultured renal fibroblast NRK-49F cells, PFKFB3 was elevated upon exposure to TGFβ1, accompanied by an increase in α-SMA and fibronectin. Notably, this upregulation was significantly diminished with PFKFB3 knockdown, correlated with glycolysis suppression. Mechanistically, the glycolytic metabolite lactate promoted the fibrotic activation of NRK-49F cells. In conclusion, our study demonstrates the critical role of PFKFB3 in driving fibroblast activation and subsequent renal fibrosis.

Smooth Muscle Heterogeneity and Plasticity in Health and Aortic Aneurysmal Disease

Vascular smooth muscle cells (VSMCs) are the predominant cell type in the medial layer of the aorta, which plays a critical role in the maintenance of aortic wall integrity. VSMCs have been suggested to have contractile and synthetic phenotypes and undergo phenotypic switching to contribute to the deteriorating aortic wall structure. Recently, the unprecedented heterogeneity and diversity of VSMCs and their complex relationship to aortic aneurysms (AAs) have been revealed by high-resolution research methods, such as lineage tracing and single-cell RNA sequencing. The aortic wall consists of VSMCs from different embryonic origins that respond unevenly to genetic defects that directly or indirectly regulate VSMC contractile phenotype. This difference predisposes to hereditary AAs in the aortic root and ascending aorta. Several VSMC phenotypes with different functions, for example, secreting VSMCs, proliferative VSMCs, mesenchymal stem cell-like VSMCs, immune-related VSMCs, proinflammatory VSMCs, senescent VSMCs, and stressed VSMCs are identified in non-hereditary AAs. The transformation of VSMCs into different phenotypes is an adaptive response to deleterious stimuli but can also trigger pathological remodeling that exacerbates the pathogenesis and development of AAs. This review is intended to contribute to the understanding of VSMC diversity in health and aneurysmal diseases. Papers that give an update on VSMC phenotype diversity in health and aneurysmal disease are summarized and recent insights on the role of VSMCs in AAs are discussed.

Histone deacetylase inhibitors synergize with sildenafil to suppress purine metabolism and proliferation in pulmonary hypertension

RATIONALE

Sildenafil, a well-known vasodilator known to interfere with purinergic signaling through effects on cGMP, is a mainstay in the treatment of pulmonary hypertension (PH). However, little is known regarding its effects on the metabolic reprogramming of vascular cells, which is a hallmark of PH. Purine metabolism, especially intracellular de novo purine biosynthesis is essential for vascular cell proliferation. Since adventitial fibroblasts are critical contributors to proliferative vascular remodeling in PH, in this study we aimed to investigate if sildenafil, beyond its well-known vasodilator role in smooth muscle cells, impacts intracellular purine metabolism and proliferation of fibroblasts derived from human PH patients.

METHODS

Integrated omics approaches (plasma and cell metabolomics) and pharmacological inhibitor approaches were employed in plasma samples and cultured pulmonary artery fibroblasts from PH patients.

MEASUREMENTS AND MAIN RESULTS

Plasma metabolome analysis of 27 PH patients before and after treatment with sildenafil, demonstrated a partial, but specific effect of sildenafil on purine metabolites, especially adenosine, adenine, and xanthine. However, circulating markers of cell stress, including lactate, succinate, and hypoxanthine were only decreased in a small subset of sildenafil-treated patients. To better understand potential effects of sildenafil on pathological changes in purine metabolism (especially purine synthesis) in PH, we performed studies on pulmonary fibroblasts from PAH patients (PH-Fibs) and corresponding controls (CO-Fibs), since these cells have previously been shown to demonstrate stable and marked PH associated phenotypic and metabolic changes. We found that PH-Fibs exhibited significantly increased purine synthesis. Treatment of PH-Fibs with sildenafil was insufficient to normalize cellular metabolic phenotype and only modestly attenuated the proliferation. However, we observed that treatments which have been shown to normalize glycolysis and mitochondrial abnormalities including a PKM2 activator (TEPP-46), and the histone deacetylase inhibitors (HDACi), SAHA and Apicidin, had significant inhibitory effects on purine synthesis. Importantly, combined treatment with HDACi and sildenafil exhibited synergistic inhibitory effects on proliferation and metabolic reprogramming in PH-Fibs.

CONCLUSIONS

While sildenafil alone partially rescues metabolic alterations associated with PH, treatment with HDACi, in combination with sildenafil, represent a promising and potentially more effective strategy for targeting vasoconstriction, metabolic derangement and pathological vascular remodeling in PH.

Identification of Novel Pathways Regulated by APE1/Ref-1 in Human Retinal Endothelial Cells

APE1/Ref-1 (apurinic/apyrimidinic endonuclease 1, APE1 or APEX1; redox factor-1, Ref-1) is a dual-functional enzyme with crucial roles in DNA repair, reduction/oxidation (redox) signaling, and RNA processing and metabolism. The redox function of Ref-1 regulates several transcription factors, such as NF-κB, STAT3, HIF-1α, and others, which have been implicated in multiple human diseases, including ocular angiogenesis, inflammation, and multiple cancers. To better understand how APE1 influences these disease processes, we investigated the effects of APEX1 knockdown (KD) on gene expression in human retinal endothelial cells. This abolishes both DNA repair and redox signaling functions, as well as RNA interactions. Using RNA-seq analysis, we identified the crucial signaling pathways affected following APEX1 KD, with subsequent validation by qRT-PCR. Gene expression data revealed that multiple genes involved in DNA base excision repair, other DNA repair pathways, purine or pyrimidine metabolism signaling, and histidine/one carbon metabolism pathways were downregulated by APEX1 KD. This is in contrast with the alteration of pathways by APEX1 KD in human cancer lines, such as pancreatic ductal adenocarcinoma, lung, HeLa, and malignant peripheral nerve sheath tumors. These results highlight the unique role of APE1/Ref-1 and the clinical therapeutic potential of targeting APE1 and pathways regulated by APE1 in the eye. These findings provide novel avenues for ocular neovascularization treatment.