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Liu Y, Chen S, Liu S, Wallace KL, Zille M, Zhang J, Wang J, Jiang C. T-cell receptor signaling modulated by the co-receptors: Potential targets for stroke treatment. Pharmacol Res 2023; 192:106797. [PMID: 37211238 DOI: 10.1016/j.phrs.2023.106797] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/07/2023] [Revised: 05/02/2023] [Accepted: 05/16/2023] [Indexed: 05/23/2023]
Abstract
Stroke is a severe and life-threatening disease, necessitating more research on new treatment strategies. Infiltrated T lymphocytes, an essential adaptive immune cell with extensive effector function, are crucially involved in post-stroke inflammation. Immediately after the initiation of the innate immune response triggered by microglia/macrophages, the adaptive immune response associated with T lymphocytes also participates in the complex pathophysiology of stroke and partially informs the outcome of stroke. Preclinical and clinical studies have revealed the conflicting roles of T cells in post-stroke inflammation and as potential therapeutic targets. Therefore, exploring the mechanisms that underlie the adaptive immune response associated with T lymphocytes in stroke is essential. The T-cell receptor (TCR) and its downstream signaling regulate T lymphocyte differentiation and activation. This review comprehensively summarizes the various molecules that regulate TCR signaling and the T-cell response. It covers both the co-stimulatory and co-inhibitory molecules and their roles in stroke. Because immunoregulatory therapies targeting TCR and its mediators have achieved great success in some proliferative diseases, this article also summarizes the advances in therapeutic strategies related to TCR signaling in lymphocytes after stroke, which can facilitate translation. DATA AVAILABILITY: No data was used for the research described in the article.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yuanyuan Liu
- Department of Neurology, The Fifth Affiliated Hospital of Zhengzhou University, 450052, Zhengzhou, P. R. China
| | - Shuai Chen
- Department of Neurology, The Fifth Affiliated Hospital of Zhengzhou University, 450052, Zhengzhou, P. R. China
| | - Simon Liu
- Medical Genomics Unit, National Human Genome Research Institute, Bethesda, MD, 20814, USA
| | - Kevin L Wallace
- College of Mathematical and Natural Sciences, University of Maryland, College Park, MD, 20742, USA
| | - Marietta Zille
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Division of Pharmacology and Toxicology, University of Vienna, A-1090 Vienna, Austria
| | - Jiewen Zhang
- Department of Neurology, People's Hospital of Zhengzhou University, 450000, Zhengzhou, P. R. China.
| | - Jian Wang
- Department of Neurology, The Fifth Affiliated Hospital of Zhengzhou University, 450052, Zhengzhou, P. R. China; Department of Anatomy, School of Basic Medical Sciences, Zhengzhou University, 450001, Zhengzhou, P. R. China.
| | - Chao Jiang
- Department of Neurology, The Fifth Affiliated Hospital of Zhengzhou University, 450052, Zhengzhou, P. R. China.
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Aronowski J, Sansing LH, Xi G, Zhang JH. Mechanisms of Damage After Cerebral Hemorrhage. Stroke 2022. [DOI: 10.1016/b978-0-323-69424-7.00008-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
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Carmona-Mora P, Ander BP, Jickling GC, Dykstra-Aiello C, Zhan X, Ferino E, Hamade F, Amini H, Hull H, Sharp FR, Stamova B. Distinct peripheral blood monocyte and neutrophil transcriptional programs following intracerebral hemorrhage and different etiologies of ischemic stroke. J Cereb Blood Flow Metab 2021; 41:1398-1416. [PMID: 32960689 PMCID: PMC8142129 DOI: 10.1177/0271678x20953912] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/10/2020] [Revised: 07/07/2020] [Accepted: 07/29/2020] [Indexed: 12/25/2022]
Abstract
Understanding cell-specific transcriptome responses following intracerebral hemorrhage (ICH) and ischemic stroke (IS) will improve knowledge of the immune response to brain injury. Transcriptomic profiles of 141 samples from 48 subjects with ICH, different IS etiologies, and vascular risk factor controls were characterized using RNA-seq in isolated neutrophils, monocytes and whole blood. In both IS and ICH, monocyte genes were down-regulated, whereas neutrophil gene expression changes were generally up-regulated. The monocyte down-regulated response to ICH included innate, adaptive immune, dendritic, NK cell and atherosclerosis signaling. Neutrophil responses to ICH included tRNA charging, mitochondrial dysfunction, and ER stress pathways. Common monocyte and neutrophil responses to ICH included interferon signaling, neuroinflammation, death receptor signaling, and NFAT pathways. Suppressed monocyte responses to IS included interferon and dendritic cell maturation signaling, phagosome formation, and IL-15 signaling. Activated neutrophil responses to IS included oxidative phosphorylation, mTOR, BMP, growth factor signaling, and calpain proteases-mediated blood-brain barrier (BBB) dysfunction. Common monocyte and neutrophil responses to IS included JAK1, JAK3, STAT3, and thrombopoietin signaling. Cell-type and cause-specific approaches will assist the search for future IS and ICH biomarkers and treatments.
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Affiliation(s)
- Paulina Carmona-Mora
- Department of Neurology, School of Medicine, University of California, Davis, Sacramento, CA, USA
| | - Bradley P Ander
- Department of Neurology, School of Medicine, University of California, Davis, Sacramento, CA, USA
| | - Glen C Jickling
- Department of Neurology, School of Medicine, University of California, Davis, Sacramento, CA, USA
- Department of Medicine, University of Alberta, Edmonton, Canada
| | - Cheryl Dykstra-Aiello
- Department of Neurology, School of Medicine, University of California, Davis, Sacramento, CA, USA
| | - Xinhua Zhan
- Department of Neurology, School of Medicine, University of California, Davis, Sacramento, CA, USA
| | - Eva Ferino
- Department of Neurology, School of Medicine, University of California, Davis, Sacramento, CA, USA
| | - Farah Hamade
- Department of Neurology, School of Medicine, University of California, Davis, Sacramento, CA, USA
| | - Hajar Amini
- Department of Neurology, School of Medicine, University of California, Davis, Sacramento, CA, USA
| | - Heather Hull
- Department of Neurology, School of Medicine, University of California, Davis, Sacramento, CA, USA
| | - Frank R Sharp
- Department of Neurology, School of Medicine, University of California, Davis, Sacramento, CA, USA
| | - Boryana Stamova
- Department of Neurology, School of Medicine, University of California, Davis, Sacramento, CA, USA
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Sun Q, Xu X, Wang T, Xu Z, Lu X, Li X, Chen G. Neurovascular Units and Neural-Glia Networks in Intracerebral Hemorrhage: from Mechanisms to Translation. Transl Stroke Res 2021; 12:447-460. [PMID: 33629275 DOI: 10.1007/s12975-021-00897-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/13/2020] [Revised: 02/07/2021] [Accepted: 02/09/2021] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
Abstract
Intracerebral hemorrhage (ICH), the most lethal type of stroke, often leads to poor outcomes in the clinic. Due to the complex mechanisms and cell-cell crosstalk during ICH, the neurovascular unit (NVU) was proposed to serve as a promising therapeutic target for ICH research. This review aims to summarize the development of pathophysiological shifts in the NVU and neural-glia networks after ICH. In addition, potential targets for ICH therapy are discussed in this review. Beyond cerebral blood flow, the NVU also plays an important role in protecting neurons, maintaining central nervous system (CNS) homeostasis, coordinating neuronal activity among supporting cells, forming and maintaining the blood-brain barrier (BBB), and regulating neuroimmune responses. During ICH, NVU dysfunction is induced, along with neuronal cell death, microglia and astrocyte activation, endothelial cell (EC) and tight junction (TJ) protein damage, and BBB disruption. In addition, it has been shown that certain targets and candidates can improve ICH-induced secondary brain injury based on an NVU and neural-glia framework. Moreover, therapeutic approaches and strategies for ICH are discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Qing Sun
- Department of Neurosurgery & Brain and Nerve Research Laboratory, The First Affiliated Hospital of Soochow University, 188 Shizi Street, Suzhou, 215006, China
| | - Xiang Xu
- Department of Neurosurgery & Brain and Nerve Research Laboratory, The First Affiliated Hospital of Soochow University, 188 Shizi Street, Suzhou, 215006, China
| | - Tianyi Wang
- Department of Neurosurgery & Brain and Nerve Research Laboratory, The First Affiliated Hospital of Soochow University, 188 Shizi Street, Suzhou, 215006, China
| | - Zhongmou Xu
- Department of Neurosurgery & Brain and Nerve Research Laboratory, The First Affiliated Hospital of Soochow University, 188 Shizi Street, Suzhou, 215006, China
| | - Xiaocheng Lu
- Department of Neurosurgery & Brain and Nerve Research Laboratory, The First Affiliated Hospital of Soochow University, 188 Shizi Street, Suzhou, 215006, China.
| | - Xiang Li
- Department of Neurosurgery & Brain and Nerve Research Laboratory, The First Affiliated Hospital of Soochow University, 188 Shizi Street, Suzhou, 215006, China.
| | - Gang Chen
- Department of Neurosurgery & Brain and Nerve Research Laboratory, The First Affiliated Hospital of Soochow University, 188 Shizi Street, Suzhou, 215006, China
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Molecular Correlates of Hemorrhage and Edema Volumes Following Human Intracerebral Hemorrhage Implicate Inflammation, Autophagy, mRNA Splicing, and T Cell Receptor Signaling. Transl Stroke Res 2020; 12:754-777. [PMID: 33206327 PMCID: PMC8421315 DOI: 10.1007/s12975-020-00869-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/27/2020] [Revised: 10/02/2020] [Accepted: 10/18/2020] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
Abstract
Intracerebral hemorrhage (ICH) and perihematomal edema (PHE) volumes are major determinants of ICH outcomes as is the immune system which plays a significant role in damage and repair. Thus, we performed whole-transcriptome analyses of 18 ICH patients to delineate peripheral blood genes and networks associated with ICH volume, absolute perihematomal edema (aPHE) volume, and relative PHE (aPHE/ICH; rPHE). We found 440, 266, and 391 genes correlated with ICH and aPHE volumes and rPHE, respectively (p < 0.005, partial-correlation > |0.6|). These mainly represented inflammatory pathways including NF-κB, TREM1, and Neuroinflammation Signaling-most activated with larger volumes. Weighted Gene Co-Expression Network Analysis identified seven modules significantly correlated with these measures (p < 0.05). Most modules were enriched in neutrophil, monocyte, erythroblast, and/or T cell-specific genes. Autophagy, apoptosis, HIF-1α, inflammatory and neuroinflammatory response (including Toll-like receptors), cell adhesion (including MMP9), platelet activation, T cell receptor signaling, and mRNA splicing were represented in these modules (FDR p < 0.05). Module hub genes, potential master regulators, were enriched in neutrophil-specific genes in three modules. Hub genes included NCF2, NCF4, STX3, and CSF3R, and involved immune response, autophagy, and neutrophil chemotaxis. One module that correlated negatively with ICH volume correlated positively with rPHE. Its genes and hubs were enriched in T cell-specific genes including hubs LCK and ITK, Src family tyrosine kinases whose modulation improved outcomes and reduced BBB dysfunction following experimental ICH. This study uncovers molecular underpinnings associated with ICH and PHE volumes and pathophysiology in human ICH, where knowledge is scarce. The identified pathways and hub genes may represent novel therapeutic targets.
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Zou Y, Sun S, Sharif UI, Wasie A, Ma H. The Possible Inhibition Effect of Lycium barbarum Polysaccharides on Rat Intracerebral Hemorrhage Secondary Neuronal Apoptosis through Intervening Endogenous/Exogenous Pathways of Apoptosis. INDIAN JOURNAL OF NEUROSURGERY 2020. [DOI: 10.1055/s-0040-1713059] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/23/2022] Open
Abstract
Abstract
Objective The aim of this study was to explore the inhibition effect and possible mechanism of Lycium barbarum polysaccharides (LBP) on rat intracerebral hemorrhage (ICH) secondary neuronal apoptosis.
Materials and Methods High-, medium-, and low-dose LBP (50, 100, and 200 mg•kg) and nimodipine (10 mg•kg) groups were given once daily by 15-day gavage before operation, while the sham operation and ICH groups were given the equal volume of saline. An ICH model was established by autologous blood injection and the neurological function in each group was scored at 4, 8, 12, 24, and 48 hours after modeling. Furthermore, terminal deoxynucleotidyl transferase dUTP nick end labeling analysis was performed to detect neuronal apoptosis, while western blot, immunohistochemistry, and real-time-polymerase chain reaction were used to study the influence of LBP on ICH secondary neuronal apoptosis.
Results The neurological function score was significantly decreased after ICH, and the intervention effect of a single drug was not evident. The apoptotic nerve cells increased significantly in the ICH group but decreased considerably in the LBP groups. Furthermore, tumor necrosis factor alpha (TNF-α) expression decreased significantly, while B-cell lymphoma 2 expression increased substantially in the high- and medium-dose LBP groups compared with ICH group, suggesting that LBP could reduce the effect of ICH. However, the impact of LBP did not correlate positively with the dose.
Conclusion The application of LBP may not significantly improve neurological function after ICH, but it can inhibit rat ICH secondary neuronal apoptosis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yourui Zou
- Department of Neurosurgery, General Hospital of Ningxia Medical University, Yinchuan, China
| | - ShengYu Sun
- Department of Neurosurgery, General Hospital of Ningxia Medical University, Yinchuan, China
| | - Usama Ilyas Sharif
- Department of Neurosurgery. General Hospital of Ningxia Medical University, Yinchuan, China
| | - Abdul Wasie
- Department of Neurosurgery. General Hospital of Ningxia Medical University, Yinchuan, China
| | - Hui Ma
- Department of Neurosurgery, General Hospital of Ningxia Medical University, Yinchuan, China
- Ningxia Key Laboratory for Cranio-cerebral Diseases, Ningxia Medical University, Yinchuan, China
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Hao XD, Le CS, Zhang HM, Shang DS, Tong LS, Gao F. Thrombin disrupts vascular endothelial-cadherin and leads to hydrocephalus via protease-activated receptors-1 pathway. CNS Neurosci Ther 2019; 25:1142-1150. [PMID: 30955248 DOI: 10.1111/cns.13129] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/30/2019] [Revised: 03/11/2019] [Accepted: 03/13/2019] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
AIMS Previous studies indicated that intraventricular injection of thrombin would induce hydrocephalus. But how thrombin works in this process remains unclear. Since cadherin plays a critical role in hydrocephalus, we aimed to explore the mechanisms of how thrombin acted on choroid plexus vascular endothelium and how thrombin interacted with vascular endothelial-cadherin (VE-cadherin) during hydrocephalus. METHODS There were two parts in this study. Firstly, rats received an injection of saline or thrombin into the right lateral ventricle. Magnetic resonance imaging was applied to measure the lateral ventricle volumes. Albumin leakage and Evans blue content were assessed to test the blood-brain barrier function. Immunofluorescence and Western blot were applied to detect the location and the expression of VE-cadherin. Secondly, we observed the roles of protease-activated receptors-1 (PAR1) inhibitor (SCH79797), Src inhibitor (PP2), p21-activated kinase-1 (PAK1) inhibitor (IPA3) in the thrombin-induced hydrocephalus, and their effects on the regulation of VE-cadherin. RESULTS Our study demonstrated that intraventricular injection of thrombin caused significant downregulation of VE-cadherin in choroid plexus and dilation of ventricles. In addition, the inhibition of PAR1/p-Src/p-PAK1 pathway reversed the decrease of VE-cadherin and attenuated thrombin-induced hydrocephalus. CONCLUSIONS Our results suggested that the thrombin-induced hydrocephalus was associated with the inhibition of VE-cadherin via the PAR1/p-Src/p-PAK1 pathway.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xiao-Di Hao
- School of Medicine, Department of Neurology, The Second Affiliated Hospital, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, China
| | - Chen-Sheng Le
- School of Medicine, Department of Neurology, The Second Affiliated Hospital, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, China
| | - Hong-Mei Zhang
- School of Medicine, Department of Neurology, The Second Affiliated Hospital, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, China
| | - De-Sheng Shang
- School of Medicine, Department of Radiology, The First Affiliated Hospital, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, China
| | - Lu-Sha Tong
- School of Medicine, Department of Neurology, The Second Affiliated Hospital, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, China
| | - Feng Gao
- School of Medicine, Department of Neurology, The Second Affiliated Hospital, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, China
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Durocher M, Ander BP, Jickling G, Hamade F, Hull H, Knepp B, Liu DZ, Zhan X, Tran A, Cheng X, Ng K, Yee A, Sharp FR, Stamova B. Inflammatory, regulatory, and autophagy co-expression modules and hub genes underlie the peripheral immune response to human intracerebral hemorrhage. J Neuroinflammation 2019; 16:56. [PMID: 30836997 PMCID: PMC6399982 DOI: 10.1186/s12974-019-1433-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 37] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/11/2018] [Accepted: 02/12/2019] [Indexed: 12/31/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Intracerebral hemorrhage (ICH) has a high morbidity and mortality. The peripheral immune system and cross-talk between peripheral blood and brain have been implicated in the ICH immune response. Thus, we delineated the gene networks associated with human ICH in the peripheral blood transcriptome. We also compared the differentially expressed genes in blood following ICH to a prior human study of perihematomal brain tissue. METHODS We performed peripheral blood whole-transcriptome analysis of ICH and matched vascular risk factor control subjects (n = 66). Gene co-expression network analysis identified groups of co-expressed genes (modules) associated with ICH and their most interconnected genes (hubs). Mixed-effects regression identified differentially expressed genes in ICH compared to controls. RESULTS Of seven ICH-associated modules, six were enriched with cell-specific genes: one neutrophil module, one neutrophil plus monocyte module, one T cell module, one Natural Killer cell module, and two erythroblast modules. The neutrophil/monocyte modules were enriched in inflammatory/immune pathways; the T cell module in T cell receptor signaling genes; and the Natural Killer cell module in genes regulating alternative splicing, epigenetic, and post-translational modifications. One erythroblast module was enriched in autophagy pathways implicated in experimental ICH, and NRF2 signaling implicated in hematoma clearance. Many hub genes or module members, such as IARS, mTOR, S1PR1, LCK, FYN, SKAP1, ITK, AMBRA1, NLRC4, IL6R, IL17RA, GAB2, MXD1, PIK3CD, NUMB, MAPK14, DDX24, EVL, TDP1, ATG3, WDFY3, GSK3B, STAT3, STX3, CSF3R, PIP4K2A, ANXA3, DGAT2, LRP10, FLOT2, ANK1, CR1, SLC4A1, and DYSF, have been implicated in neuroinflammation, cell death, transcriptional regulation, and some as experimental ICH therapeutic targets. Gene-level analysis revealed 1225 genes (FDR p < 0.05, fold-change > |1.2|) have altered expression in ICH in peripheral blood. There was significant overlap of the 1225 genes with dysregulated genes in human perihematomal brain tissue (p = 7 × 10-3). Overlapping genes were enriched for neutrophil-specific genes (p = 6.4 × 10-08) involved in interleukin, neuroinflammation, apoptosis, and PPAR signaling. CONCLUSIONS This study delineates key processes underlying ICH pathophysiology, complements experimental ICH findings, and the hub genes significantly expand the list of novel ICH therapeutic targets. The overlap between blood and brain gene responses underscores the importance of examining blood-brain interactions in human ICH.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marc Durocher
- Department of Neurology, University of California Davis School of Medicine, Sacramento, CA 95817 USA
| | - Bradley P. Ander
- Department of Neurology, University of California Davis School of Medicine, Sacramento, CA 95817 USA
| | - Glen Jickling
- Department of Neurology, University of California Davis School of Medicine, Sacramento, CA 95817 USA
| | - Farah Hamade
- Department of Neurology, University of California Davis School of Medicine, Sacramento, CA 95817 USA
| | - Heather Hull
- Department of Neurology, University of California Davis School of Medicine, Sacramento, CA 95817 USA
| | - Bodie Knepp
- Department of Neurology, University of California Davis School of Medicine, Sacramento, CA 95817 USA
| | - Da Zhi Liu
- Department of Neurology, University of California Davis School of Medicine, Sacramento, CA 95817 USA
| | - Xinhua Zhan
- Department of Neurology, University of California Davis School of Medicine, Sacramento, CA 95817 USA
| | - Anh Tran
- Department of Neurology, University of California Davis School of Medicine, Sacramento, CA 95817 USA
| | - Xiyuan Cheng
- Department of Neurology, University of California Davis School of Medicine, Sacramento, CA 95817 USA
| | - Kwan Ng
- Department of Neurology, University of California Davis School of Medicine, Sacramento, CA 95817 USA
| | - Alan Yee
- Department of Neurology, University of California Davis School of Medicine, Sacramento, CA 95817 USA
| | - Frank R. Sharp
- Department of Neurology, University of California Davis School of Medicine, Sacramento, CA 95817 USA
| | - Boryana Stamova
- Department of Neurology, University of California Davis School of Medicine, Sacramento, CA 95817 USA
- MIND Institute Biosciences Building, 2805 50th Street, Sacramento, CA 95817 USA
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Li X, Feng D, Chen G. An Update On Medical Treatment for Intracerebral Hemorrhage. Transl Stroke Res 2018; 9:10.1007/s12975-018-0664-5. [PMID: 30206812 DOI: 10.1007/s12975-018-0664-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/30/2018] [Accepted: 09/04/2018] [Indexed: 12/26/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Xiang Li
- Department of Neurosurgery & Brain and Nerve Research Laboratory, The First Affiliated Hospital of Soochow University, 188 Shizi Street, Suzhou, 215006, China
| | - Dongxia Feng
- Department of Neurosurgery, Baylor Scott & White Medical Center, Texas A&M University College of Medicine, Temple, 76508, USA
| | - Gang Chen
- Department of Neurosurgery & Brain and Nerve Research Laboratory, The First Affiliated Hospital of Soochow University, 188 Shizi Street, Suzhou, 215006, China.
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Keep RF, Andjelkovic AV, Xiang J, Stamatovic SM, Antonetti DA, Hua Y, Xi G. Brain endothelial cell junctions after cerebral hemorrhage: Changes, mechanisms and therapeutic targets. J Cereb Blood Flow Metab 2018; 38:1255-1275. [PMID: 29737222 PMCID: PMC6092767 DOI: 10.1177/0271678x18774666] [Citation(s) in RCA: 113] [Impact Index Per Article: 18.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/15/2018] [Accepted: 04/09/2018] [Indexed: 11/15/2022]
Abstract
Vascular disruption is the underlying cause of cerebral hemorrhage, including intracerebral, subarachnoid and intraventricular hemorrhage. The disease etiology also involves cerebral hemorrhage-induced blood-brain barrier (BBB) disruption, which contributes an important component to brain injury after the initial cerebral hemorrhage. BBB loss drives vasogenic edema, allows leukocyte extravasation and may lead to the entry of potentially neurotoxic and vasoactive compounds into brain. This review summarizes current information on changes in brain endothelial junction proteins in response to cerebral hemorrhage (and clot-related factors), the mechanisms underlying junction modification and potential therapeutic targets to limit BBB disruption and, potentially, hemorrhage occurrence. It also addresses advances in the tools that are now available for assessing changes in junctions after cerebral hemorrhage and the potential importance of such junction changes. Recent studies suggest post-translational modification, conformational change and intracellular trafficking of junctional proteins may alter barrier properties. Understanding how cerebral hemorrhage alters BBB properties beyond changes in tight junction protein loss may provide important therapeutic insights to prevent BBB dysfunction and restore normal function.
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Affiliation(s)
- Richard F Keep
- Department of Neurosurgery, University of Michigan Ann Arbor, MI, USA
- Department of Molecular and Integrative Physiology, University of Michigan Ann Arbor, MI, USA
| | - Anuska V Andjelkovic
- Department of Neurosurgery, University of Michigan Ann Arbor, MI, USA
- Department of Pathology, University of Michigan Ann Arbor, MI, USA
| | - Jianming Xiang
- Department of Neurosurgery, University of Michigan Ann Arbor, MI, USA
| | | | - David A Antonetti
- Department of Molecular and Integrative Physiology, University of Michigan Ann Arbor, MI, USA
- Department of Ophthalmology & Visual Science Medical School, University of Michigan Ann Arbor, MI, USA
| | - Ya Hua
- Department of Neurosurgery, University of Michigan Ann Arbor, MI, USA
| | - Guohua Xi
- Department of Neurosurgery, University of Michigan Ann Arbor, MI, USA
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Xi T, Jin F, Zhu Y, Wang J, Tang L, Wang Y, Liebeskind DS, He Z. MicroRNA-126-3p attenuates blood-brain barrier disruption, cerebral edema and neuronal injury following intracerebral hemorrhage by regulating PIK3R2 and Akt. Biochem Biophys Res Commun 2017; 494:144-151. [PMID: 29042193 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbrc.2017.10.064] [Citation(s) in RCA: 68] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/30/2017] [Accepted: 10/13/2017] [Indexed: 01/11/2023]
Abstract
MiR-126, a microRNA implicated in blood vessel integrity, angiogenesis and vascular inflammation, is markedly decreased in the sera of patients with intracerebral hemorrhage (ICH). The current study aims to evaluate the potential therapeutic effect of miR-126-3p on brain injuries in a rat model of collagenase-induced ICH. Intracerebroventricular administration of a miR-126-3p mimic significantly alleviated behavioral defects 24 h after ICH, as examined by paw placement and corner tests. ICH led to increased blood-brain barrier (BBB) permeability and cerebral edema, both of which were attenuated by miR-126-3p mimic. Treatment with miR-126-3p mimic reduced the numbers of myeloperoxidase (MPO)-positive, OX42-positive, Fluoro Jade B (FJB)-positive and NEUN/TUNEL double-positive cells around the hematoma, implying that miR-126-3p inhibited neutrophil infiltration, microglial activation and neuronal apoptosis following hemorrhage. In addition, miR-126-3p mimic suppressed the upregulation of phosphoinositide-3-kinase regulatory subunit 2 (PIK3R2) in the perihematomal area and maintained the activation of Akt. Furthermore, in vitro assays confirmed upregulation of PIK3R2 upon knockdown of miR-126-3p in rat brain microvascular endothelial cells (BMECs), and silencing of miR-126-3p resulted in impaired BMEC barrier permeability and reversed vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF)- and angiopoietin-1 (Ang-1)-induced activation of Akt and inhibition of BMEC apoptosis. In summary, our results suggest that exogenous miR-126-3p may alleviate BBB disruption, cerebral edema and neuronal injury following ICH by targeting PIK3R2 and the Akt signaling pathway in brain vascular endothelium.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tianyang Xi
- Department of Neurology, The First Affiliated Hospital of China Medical University, Shenyang 110001, China
| | - Feng Jin
- Department of Neurology, The First Affiliated Hospital of China Medical University, Shenyang 110001, China
| | - Ying Zhu
- Department of Neurology, The First Affiliated Hospital of China Medical University, Shenyang 110001, China
| | - Jialu Wang
- Department of Neurology, The First Affiliated Hospital of China Medical University, Shenyang 110001, China
| | - Ling Tang
- Department of Neurology, The First Affiliated Hospital of China Medical University, Shenyang 110001, China
| | - Yanzhe Wang
- Department of Neurology, The First Affiliated Hospital of China Medical University, Shenyang 110001, China
| | - David S Liebeskind
- Department of Neurology, University of California, Los Angeles, CA 90095-7334, USA
| | - Zhiyi He
- Department of Neurology, The First Affiliated Hospital of China Medical University, Shenyang 110001, China.
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12
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Peng L, Bonaguidi MA. Function and Dysfunction of Adult Hippocampal Neurogenesis in Regeneration and Disease. THE AMERICAN JOURNAL OF PATHOLOGY 2017; 188:23-28. [PMID: 29030053 DOI: 10.1016/j.ajpath.2017.09.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 46] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/31/2017] [Revised: 09/08/2017] [Accepted: 09/21/2017] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
Abstract
The hippocampus is the only known brain region where physiological neurogenesis continues into adulthood across mammalian species and in humans. However, disease and injury can change the level of adult hippocampal neurogenesis, which plays an important role in regulating cognitive and emotional abilities. Alterations in hippocampal neurogenesis can mediate treatment of mental illness or affect the brain's capacity for repair and regeneration. In the present review, we evaluate how adult neurogenesis contributes to the repair and regeneration of hippocampal circuitry in the face of diseases and injuries. We also discuss possible future directions for harnessing adult neurogenesis for therapeutic use.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lei Peng
- Broad California Institute for Regenerative Medicine (CIRM) Center, University of Southern California Keck School of Medicine, Los Angeles, California; Department of Stem Cell Biology and Regenerative Medicine, Neuroscience Graduate Program, University of Southern California Keck School of Medicine, Los Angeles, California
| | - Michael A Bonaguidi
- Broad California Institute for Regenerative Medicine (CIRM) Center, University of Southern California Keck School of Medicine, Los Angeles, California; Department of Stem Cell Biology and Regenerative Medicine, Zilkha Neurogenetic Institute, University of Southern California Keck School of Medicine, Los Angeles, California; Department of Gerontology, Zilkha Neurogenetic Institute, University of Southern California Keck School of Medicine, Los Angeles, California; Department of Biomedical Engineering, Zilkha Neurogenetic Institute, University of Southern California Keck School of Medicine, Los Angeles, California.
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13
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Liu DZ, Waldau B, Ander BP, Zhan X, Stamova B, Jickling GC, Lyeth BG, Sharp FR. Inhibition of Src family kinases improves cognitive function after intraventricular hemorrhage or intraventricular thrombin. J Cereb Blood Flow Metab 2017; 37:2359-2367. [PMID: 27624844 PMCID: PMC5531336 DOI: 10.1177/0271678x16666291] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/31/2022]
Abstract
Intraventricular hemorrhage causes spatial memory loss, but the mechanism remains unknown. Our recent studies demonstrated that traumatic brain injury activates Src family kinases, which cause spatial memory loss. To test whether the spatial memory loss was due to blood in the ventricles, which activated Src family kinases, we infused autologous whole blood or thrombin into the lateral ventricles of adult rats to model non-traumatic intraventricular hemorrhage. Hippocampal neuron loss was examined 1 day to 5 weeks later. Spatial memory function was assessed 29 to 33 days later using the Morris water maze. Five weeks after the ventricular injections of blood or thrombin, there was death of most hippocampal neurons and significant memory deficits compared with sham operated controls. These data show that intraventricular thrombin is sufficient to kill hippocampal neurons and produce spatial memory loss. In addition, systemic administration of the non-specific Src family kinase inhibitor PP2 or intraventricular injection of siRNA-Fyn, a Src family kinase family member, prevented hippocampal neuronal loss and spatial memory deficits following intraventricular hemorrhage. The data support the conclusions that thrombin mediates the hippocampal neuronal cell death and spatial memory deficits produced by intraventricular blood and that these can be blocked by non-specific inhibition of Src family kinases or by inhibiting Fyn.
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Affiliation(s)
- Da Zhi Liu
- 1 Department of Neurology and the M.I.N.D. Institute, University of California at Davis, Sacramento, USA
| | - Ben Waldau
- 2 Department of Neurological Surgery, University of California at Davis, Davis, USA
| | - Bradley P Ander
- 1 Department of Neurology and the M.I.N.D. Institute, University of California at Davis, Sacramento, USA
| | - Xinhua Zhan
- 1 Department of Neurology and the M.I.N.D. Institute, University of California at Davis, Sacramento, USA
| | - Boryana Stamova
- 1 Department of Neurology and the M.I.N.D. Institute, University of California at Davis, Sacramento, USA
| | - Glen C Jickling
- 1 Department of Neurology and the M.I.N.D. Institute, University of California at Davis, Sacramento, USA
| | - Bruce G Lyeth
- 2 Department of Neurological Surgery, University of California at Davis, Davis, USA
| | - Frank R Sharp
- 1 Department of Neurology and the M.I.N.D. Institute, University of California at Davis, Sacramento, USA
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14
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The Injury and Therapy of Reactive Oxygen Species in Intracerebral Hemorrhage Looking at Mitochondria. OXIDATIVE MEDICINE AND CELLULAR LONGEVITY 2016; 2016:2592935. [PMID: 27293511 PMCID: PMC4880716 DOI: 10.1155/2016/2592935] [Citation(s) in RCA: 69] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/04/2015] [Revised: 03/20/2016] [Accepted: 04/17/2016] [Indexed: 01/12/2023]
Abstract
Intracerebral hemorrhage is an emerging major health problem often resulting in death or disability. Reactive oxygen species (ROS) have been identified as one of the major damaging factors in ischemic stroke. However, there is less discussion about ROS in hemorrhage stroke. Metabolic products of hemoglobin, excitatory amino acids, and inflammatory cells are all sources of ROS, and ROS harm the central nervous system through cell death and structural damage, especially disruption of the blood-brain barrier. We have considered the antioxidant system of the CNS itself and the drugs aiming to decrease ROS after ICH, and we find that mitochondria are key players in all of these aspects. Moreover, when the mitochondrial permeability transition pore opens, ROS-induced ROS release, which leads to extensive liberation of ROS and mitochondrial failure, occurs. Therefore, the mitochondrion may be a significant target for elucidating the problem of ROS in ICH; however, additional experimental support is required.
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15
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Liu C, Liu C, Liu H, Gong L, Tao T, Shen Y, Zhu S, Shen A. Increased Expression of Ubiquitin-Specific Protease 4 Participates in Neuronal Apoptosis After Intracerebral Hemorrhage in Adult Rats. Cell Mol Neurobiol 2016; 37:427-435. [PMID: 27114249 DOI: 10.1007/s10571-016-0375-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/20/2016] [Accepted: 04/15/2016] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
Ubiquitinating enzymes catalyze protein ubiquitination, a reversible process countered by deubiquitinating enzyme (DUB) action. Ubiquitin-specific protease 4 (USP4) is a member of the ubiquitin-specific protease (USP) family of DUBs that has a role in spliceosome regulation. In the present study, we demonstrated that USP4 may be involved in neuronal apoptosis in the processes of intracerebral hemorrhage (ICH). We obtained a significant up-regulation of USP4 in neurons adjacent to the hematoma following ICH by the results of Western blot, immunohistochemistry, and immunofluorescence. Increasing USP4 level was found to be accompanied by the up-regulation of active caspase-3, γH2AX, Bax, and decreased expression of Bcl-2. In addition, USP4 co-localized well with γH2AX in the nucleus in the ICH model and hemin-induced apoptosis model. Moreover, in vitro study, knocking down USP4 by USP4-specific siRNA in PC12 cells reduced active caspase-3 expression. All these results above suggested that USP4 may be involved in neuronal apoptosis after ICH.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chao Liu
- Jiangsu Key Laboratory of Neuroregeneration, Nantong University, Nantong, 226001, Jiangsu, China.,Co-innovation Center of Neuroregeneration, Nantong University, Nantong, 226001, Jiangsu, China
| | - Chun Liu
- Laboratory Animal Center, Nantong University, Nantong, 226001, Jiangsu, China
| | - Hanzhang Liu
- Jiangsu Key Laboratory of Neuroregeneration, Nantong University, Nantong, 226001, Jiangsu, China.,Co-innovation Center of Neuroregeneration, Nantong University, Nantong, 226001, Jiangsu, China
| | - Leilei Gong
- Jiangsu Key Laboratory of Neuroregeneration, Nantong University, Nantong, 226001, Jiangsu, China.,Co-innovation Center of Neuroregeneration, Nantong University, Nantong, 226001, Jiangsu, China
| | - Tao Tao
- Jiangsu Province Key Laboratory for Inflammation and Molecular Drug Target, Medical College of Nantong University, Nantong, 226001, Jiangsu, China
| | - Yifen Shen
- Jiangsu Province Key Laboratory for Inflammation and Molecular Drug Target, Medical College of Nantong University, Nantong, 226001, Jiangsu, China
| | - Shunxing Zhu
- Laboratory Animal Center, Nantong University, Nantong, 226001, Jiangsu, China.
| | - Aiguo Shen
- Jiangsu Key Laboratory of Neuroregeneration, Nantong University, Nantong, 226001, Jiangsu, China. .,Co-innovation Center of Neuroregeneration, Nantong University, Nantong, 226001, Jiangsu, China.
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16
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Leclerc JL, Lampert AS, Diller MA, Doré S. PGE2-EP3 signaling exacerbates intracerebral hemorrhage outcomes in 24-mo-old mice. Am J Physiol Heart Circ Physiol 2016; 310:H1725-34. [PMID: 27084388 DOI: 10.1152/ajpheart.00638.2015] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/13/2015] [Accepted: 04/07/2016] [Indexed: 01/15/2023]
Abstract
With the population aging at an accelerated rate, the prevalence of stroke and financial burden of stroke-related health care costs are expected to continue to increase. Intracerebral hemorrhage (ICH) is a devastating stroke subtype more commonly affecting the elderly population, who display increased mortality and worse functional outcomes compared with younger patients. This study aimed to investigate the contribution of the prostaglandin E2 (PGE2) E prostanoid (EP) receptor subtype 3 in modulating anatomical outcomes and functional recovery following ICH in 24-mo-old mice. EP3 is the most abundant EP receptor in the brain and we have previously shown that signaling through the PGE2-EP3 axis exacerbates ICH outcomes in young mice. Here, we show that EP3 receptor deletion results in 17.9 ± 6.1% less ICH-induced brain injury (P < 0.05) and improves neurological functional recovery (P < 0.01), as identified by lower neurological deficit scores, decreased resting time, and more gross and fine motor movements. Immunohistological staining was performed to investigate possible mechanisms of EP3-mediated neurotoxicity. Identified mechanisms include reduced blood accumulation and modulation of angiogenic and astroglial responses. Using this aged cohort of mice, we have confirmed and extended our previous results in young mice demonstrating the deleterious role of the PGE2-EP3 signaling axis in modulating brain injury and functional recovery after ICH, further supporting the notion of the EP3 receptor as a putative therapeutic avenue for the treatment of ICH.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jenna L Leclerc
- Department of Anesthesiology, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida; Department of Neuroscience, University of Florida, Gainesville, Forida; and
| | - Andrew S Lampert
- Department of Anesthesiology, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida
| | - Matthew A Diller
- Department of Anesthesiology, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida
| | - Sylvain Doré
- Department of Anesthesiology, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida; Department of Neuroscience, University of Florida, Gainesville, Forida; and Departments of Neurology, Psychiatry, Psychology and Pharmaceutics, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida
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17
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Src Family Kinases in Brain Edema After Acute Brain Injury. ACTA NEUROCHIRURGICA. SUPPLEMENT 2016; 121:185-90. [PMID: 26463946 DOI: 10.1007/978-3-319-18497-5_33] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
Brain edema, the first stage of intracranial hypertension, has been associated with poor prognosis and increased mortality after acute brain injury such as ischemic stroke, intracranial hemorrhage (ICH), and traumatic brain injury (TBI). Acute brain injury often initiates release of many molecules, including glutamate, adenosine, thrombin, oxyhemoglobin, cytokines, reactive oxygen species (ROS), damage-associated molecular pattern molecules (DAMPs), and others. Most of these molecules activate Src family kinases (SFKs), a family of proto-oncogenic non-receptor tyrosine kinases, resulting in blood-brain barrier (BBB) disruption and brain edema at the acute stage after brain injury. However, SFKs also contribute to BBB self-repair and brain edema resolution in the chronic stage that follows brain injury. In this review, we summarize possible pathways through which SFKs are implicated in both brain edema formation and its eventual resolution.
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18
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Mechanisms of Cerebral Hemorrhage. Stroke 2016. [DOI: 10.1016/b978-0-323-29544-4.00008-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/23/2022]
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19
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Xu Z, Li X, Chen J, Zhao J, Wang J, Ji Y, Shen Y, Han L, Shi J, Zhang D. USP11, Deubiquitinating Enzyme, Associated with Neuronal Apoptosis Following Intracerebral Hemorrhage. J Mol Neurosci 2015; 58:16-27. [PMID: 26334325 DOI: 10.1007/s12031-015-0644-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/25/2015] [Accepted: 08/18/2015] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
Protein ubiquitination is a dynamic two-way process that can be reversed or regulated by deubiquitinating enzymes (DUB). USP11, located on the X chromosome, 6 is a member of USP subclass of the DUB family. Here, we demonstrate that USP11 may be involved in neuronal apoptosis in the processes of intracerebral hemorrhage (ICH). From the results of Western blot, immunohistochemistry, and immunofluorescence, we obtained a significant up-regulation of USP11 in neurons adjacent to the hematoma following ICH. Increasing USP11 level was found to be accompanied by the up-regulation of active caspase-3, Fas receptor (Fas), Fas ligand (FasL), and active caspase-8. Besides, USP11 co-localized well with active caspase-3 in neurons, indicating its potential role in neuronal apoptosis. What is more, knocking down USP11 by RNA-interference in PC12 cells reduced active caspase-3 expression. Thus, USP11 may play a role in promoting the brain secondary damage following ICH.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zhiwei Xu
- Jiangsu Province Key Laboratory for Inflammation and Molecular Drug Target, Medical College of Nantong University, Nantong, 226001, Jiangsu Province, China
| | - Xiaohong Li
- Surgical Comprehensive Laboratory, Affiliated Hospital of Nantong University, Nantong, 226001, Jiangsu Province, People's Republic of China
| | - Jianping Chen
- Surgical Comprehensive Laboratory, Affiliated Hospital of Nantong University, Nantong, 226001, Jiangsu Province, People's Republic of China
| | - Jianmei Zhao
- Surgical Comprehensive Laboratory, Affiliated Hospital of Nantong University, Nantong, 226001, Jiangsu Province, People's Republic of China
| | - Jun Wang
- Surgical Comprehensive Laboratory, Affiliated Hospital of Nantong University, Nantong, 226001, Jiangsu Province, People's Republic of China
| | - Yuhong Ji
- Jiangsu Province Key Laboratory for Inflammation and Molecular Drug Target, Medical College of Nantong University, Nantong, 226001, Jiangsu Province, China
| | - Yifen Shen
- Jiangsu Province Key Laboratory for Inflammation and Molecular Drug Target, Medical College of Nantong University, Nantong, 226001, Jiangsu Province, China
| | - Lijian Han
- Jiangsu Province Key Laboratory for Inflammation and Molecular Drug Target, Medical College of Nantong University, Nantong, 226001, Jiangsu Province, China
| | - Jiansheng Shi
- Surgical Comprehensive Laboratory, Affiliated Hospital of Nantong University, Nantong, 226001, Jiangsu Province, People's Republic of China.
| | - Dongmei Zhang
- Jiangsu Province Key Laboratory for Inflammation and Molecular Drug Target, Medical College of Nantong University, Nantong, 226001, Jiangsu Province, China.
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20
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Toxic role of prostaglandin E2 receptor EP1 after intracerebral hemorrhage in mice. Brain Behav Immun 2015; 46:293-310. [PMID: 25697396 PMCID: PMC4422065 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbi.2015.02.011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 69] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/09/2014] [Revised: 01/28/2015] [Accepted: 02/08/2015] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Inflammatory mechanisms mediated by prostaglandins may contribute to the progression of intracerebral hemorrhage (ICH)-induced brain injury, but they are not fully understood. In this study, we examined the effect of prostaglandin E2 receptor EP1 (EP1R) activation and inhibition on brain injury in mouse models of ICH and investigated the underlying mechanism of action. ICH was induced by injecting collagenase, autologous blood, or thrombin into the striatum of middle-aged male and female mice and aged male mice. Effects of selective EP1R agonist ONO-DI-004, antagonist SC51089, and nonspecific Src family kinase inhibitor PP2 were evaluated by a combination of histologic, magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), immunofluorescence, molecular, cellular, and behavioral assessments. EP1R was expressed primarily in neurons and axons but not in astrocytes or microglia after ICH induced by collagenase. In middle-aged male mice subjected to collagenase-induced ICH, EP1R inhibition mitigated brain injury, brain edema, cell death, neuronal degeneration, neuroinflammation, and neurobehavioral deficits, whereas its activation exacerbated these outcomes. EP1R inhibition also was protective in middle-aged female mice and aged male mice after collagenase-induced ICH and in middle-aged male mice after blood- or thrombin-induced ICH. EP1R inhibition also reduced oxidative stress, white matter injury, and brain atrophy and improved functional outcomes. Histologic results were confirmed by MRI. Src kinase phosphorylation and matrix metalloproteinase-9 activity were increased by EP1R activation and decreased by EP1R inhibition. EP1R regulated matrix metalloproteinase-9 activity through Src kinase signaling, which mediated EP1R toxicity after collagenase-induced ICH. We conclude that prostaglandin E2 EP1R activation plays a toxic role after ICH through mechanisms that involve the Src kinases and the matrix metalloproteinase-9 signaling pathway. EP1R inhibition could be a novel therapeutic strategy to improve outcomes after ICH.
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21
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Salgado IK, Torrado AI, Santiago JM, Miranda JD. Tamoxifen and Src kinase inhibitors as neuroprotective/neuroregenerative drugs after spinal cord injury. Neural Regen Res 2015; 10:385-90. [PMID: 25878585 PMCID: PMC4396099 DOI: 10.4103/1673-5374.153685] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 01/25/2015] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
Spinal cord injury (SCI) is a devastating condition that produces significant changes in the lifestyle of patients. Many molecular and cellular events are triggered after the initial physical impact to the cord. Two major phases have been described in the field of SCI: an acute phase and late phase. Most of the therapeutic strategies are focused on the late phase because this provides an opportunity to target cellular events like apoptosis, demyelination, scar formation and axonal outgrowth. In this mini-review, we will focus on two agents (tamoxifen and a Src kinase family inhibitor known as PP2) that have been shown in our laboratory to produce neuroprotective (increase cell survival) and/or regenerative (axonal outgrowth) actions. The animal model used in our laboratory is adult female rat (~250 g) with a moderate contusion (12.5 mm) to the spinal cord at the T10 level, using the MASCIS impactor device. Tamoxifen or PP2 was administered by implantation of a 15 mg pellet (Innovative Research of America, Sarasota, FL, USA) or by intraperitoneal injections (1.5 mg/kg, every 3 days), respectively, to produce a long-term effect (28 days). Tamoxifen and the Src kinase inhibitor, PP2, are drugs that in rats with a moderate spinal cord injury promote functional locomotor recovery, increase spared white matter tissue, and stimulate axonal outgrowth. Moreover, tamoxifen reduces the formation of reactive oxygen species. Therefore, these drugs are possible therapeutic agents that have a neuroprotective/regenerative activity in vertebrates with SCI.
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Affiliation(s)
- Iris K Salgado
- Department of Physiology, School of Medicine, University of Puerto Rico Medical Sciences Campus, San Juan, PR 00936, USA
| | - Aranza I Torrado
- Department of Physiology, School of Medicine, University of Puerto Rico Medical Sciences Campus, San Juan, PR 00936, USA
| | - Jose M Santiago
- University of Puerto Rico Carolina Campus, Department of Natural Sciences, Carolina, PR 00984, USA
| | - Jorge D Miranda
- Department of Physiology, School of Medicine, University of Puerto Rico Medical Sciences Campus, San Juan, PR 00936, USA
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22
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Egashira Y, Hua Y, Keep RF, Xi G. Intercellular cross-talk in intracerebral hemorrhage. Brain Res 2015; 1623:97-109. [PMID: 25863131 DOI: 10.1016/j.brainres.2015.04.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/02/2014] [Revised: 03/31/2015] [Accepted: 04/01/2015] [Indexed: 12/22/2022]
Abstract
Intracerebral hemorrhage (ICH) is a devastating cerebrovascular disorder with high mortality and morbidity. Currently, there are few treatment strategies for ICH-induced brain injury. A recent increase in interest in the pathophysiology of ICH has led to elucidation of the pathways underlying ICH-induced brain injury, pathways where intercellular and hematoma to cell signaling play important roles. In this review, we summarize recent advances in ICH research focusing on intercellular and hematoma:cell cross-talk related to brain injury and recovery after ICH. This article is part of a Special Issue entitled SI: Cell Interactions In Stroke.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yusuke Egashira
- Department of Neurosurgery, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI, USA
| | - Ya Hua
- Department of Neurosurgery, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI, USA
| | - Richard F Keep
- Department of Neurosurgery, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI, USA
| | - Guohua Xi
- Department of Neurosurgery, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI, USA.
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23
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PGE2 receptor agonist misoprostol protects brain against intracerebral hemorrhage in mice. Neurobiol Aging 2015; 36:1439-50. [PMID: 25623334 DOI: 10.1016/j.neurobiolaging.2014.12.029] [Citation(s) in RCA: 65] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/15/2014] [Revised: 12/16/2014] [Accepted: 12/26/2014] [Indexed: 11/23/2022]
Abstract
Intracerebral hemorrhage (ICH) is a devastating form of stroke. Misoprostol, a synthetic prostaglandin E1 (PGE1) analog and PGE2 receptor agonist, has shown protection against cerebral ischemia. In this study, we tested the efficacy of misoprostol in the 12-month-old mice subjected to 1 of 2 complementary ICH models, the collagenase model (primary study) and blood model (secondary study, performed in an independent laboratory). We also investigated its potential mechanism of action. Misoprostol posttreatment decreased brain lesion volume, edema, and brain atrophy and improved long-term functional outcomes. In the collagenase-induced ICH model, misoprostol decreased cellular inflammatory response; attenuated oxidative brain damage and gelatinolytic activity; and decreased high-mobility group box 1 (HMGB1) expression, Src kinase activity, and interleukin-1β expression without affecting cyclooxygenase-2 expression. Furthermore, HMGB1 inhibition with glycyrrhizin decreased Src kinase activity, gelatinolytic activity, neuronal death, and brain lesion volume. Src kinase inhibition with 4-amino-5-(4-chlorophenyl)-7-(t-butyl)pyrazolo[3,4-d]pyrimidine (PP2) decreased gelatinolytic activity and brain edema and improved neurologic function but did not decrease HMGB1 protein level. These results indicate that misoprostol protects brain against ICH injury through mechanisms that may involve the HMGB1, Src kinase, and matrix metalloproteinase-2/9 pathways.
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24
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Liu DZ, Sharp FR, Van KC, Ander BP, Ghiasvand R, Zhan X, Stamova B, Jickling GC, Lyeth BG. Inhibition of SRC family kinases protects hippocampal neurons and improves cognitive function after traumatic brain injury. J Neurotrauma 2014; 31:1268-76. [PMID: 24428562 DOI: 10.1089/neu.2013.3250] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Traumatic brain injury (TBI) is often associated with intracerebral and intraventricular hemorrhage. Thrombin is a neurotoxin generated at bleeding sites fater TBI and can lead to cell death and subsequent cognitive dysfunction via activation of Src family kinases (SFKs). We hypothesize that inhibiting SFKs can protect hippocampal neurons and improve cognitive memory function after TBI. To test these hypotheses, we show that moderate lateral fluid percussion (LFP) TBI in adult rats produces bleeding into the cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) in both lateral ventricles, which elevates oxyhemoglobin and thrombin levels in the CSF, activates the SFK family member Fyn, and increases Rho-kinase 1(ROCK1) expression. Systemic administration of the SFK inhibitor, PP2, immediately after moderate TBI blocks ROCK1 expression, protects hippocampal CA2/3 neurons, and improves spatial memory function. These data suggest the possibility that inhibiting SFKs after TBI might improve clinical outcomes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Da Zhi Liu
- 1 Department of Neurology and the M.I.N.D. Institute, University of California , Davis, Medical Center, Sacramento, California
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25
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Chen-Roetling J, Sinanan J, Regan RF. Effect of iron chelators on methemoglobin and thrombin preconditioning. Transl Stroke Res 2014; 3:452-9. [PMID: 23585819 DOI: 10.1007/s12975-012-0195-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/27/2023]
Abstract
Cell loss immediately adjacent to an intracerebral hemorrhage may be mediated in part by the toxicities of extracellular hemoglobin (Hb) and thrombin. However, at low concentrations, these proteins induce tolerance to hemin and iron that may limit further peri-hematomal injury as erythrocyte lysis progresses. The mechanisms mediating these preconditioning effects have not been completely defined, but increased expression of both heme oxygenase (HO)-1 and iron binding proteins likely contributes. In the present study, we hypothesized that iron chelator therapy would attenuate this protective response. Pretreatment of cortical glial cultures (> 90 % GFAP+) with 3 μM methemoglobin (metHb) or 5 units/ml thrombin for 24 h was nontoxic per se, and increased HO-1 and ferritin expression. When challenged with a toxic concentration of hemin, the increase in cellular redox-active iron was attenuated in preconditioned cultures and cell survival was increased. However, if cultures were pretreated with metHb or thrombin plus deferoxamine or 2,2'-bipyridyl, ferritin induction was prevented and cellular redox-active iron increased with hemin treatment. Preconditioning-mediated cytoprotection was consistently reduced by deferoxamine, while 2,2'-bipyridyl had a variable effect. Neither chelator altered HO-1 expression. A cytoprotective response was preserved when chelator therapy was limited to 11 hours of the 24 h preconditioning interval. These results suggest a potentially deleterious effect of continuous iron chelator therapy after ICH. Intermittent therapy may remove peri-hematomal iron without negating the benefits of exposure to low concentrations of Hb or thrombin.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jing Chen-Roetling
- Department of Emergency Medicine, Thomas Jefferson University, 1025 Walnut Street, College Building Room 813, Philadelphia, PA 19107, USA
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26
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Zan L, Zhang X, Xi Y, Wu H, Song Y, Teng G, Li H, Qi J, Wang J. Src regulates angiogenic factors and vascular permeability after focal cerebral ischemia-reperfusion. Neuroscience 2014; 262:118-28. [PMID: 24412374 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuroscience.2013.12.060] [Citation(s) in RCA: 61] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/10/2013] [Revised: 12/26/2013] [Accepted: 12/28/2013] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
Abstract
Developing new strategies to treat cerebral ischemic-reperfusion injury will require a better understanding of the mechanisms that underlie vascular permeability. In this study we examined the temporal expression of Src and angiogenic factors in rat brain after focal cerebral ischemia and reperfusion and analyzed the relationships among those factors. We also investigated the effect of Src inhibitor PP1 (4-amino-5-(4-methylphenyl)-7-(t-butyl)pyrazolo[3,4-d]pyrimidine) in ischemic reperfusion. Rats were subjected to middle cerebral artery occlusion for 90 min followed by reperfusion with or without PP1 treatment. Src mRNA increased at 3h after reperfusion and then gradually declined. Phosphorylation of Src at Y418 displayed a biphasic increase. Phosphorylation increased as early as 3h and peaked at 6h; after decreasing, it peaked again at 3-7 days. Increases in Src mRNA and phosphorylation correlated positively with levels of vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) and angiopoietin-2 (Ang-2), and negatively with levels of angiopoietin-1 (Ang-1) and zonula occludens-1 (ZO-1). Changes in the expression of these factors correlated with the progress of vascular permeability, especially early after reperfusion. Hence, dynamic temporal changes in Src Y418 phosphorylation may modulate vascular permeability after cerebral ischemia and reperfusion. PP1 effectively decreased Src Y418 phosphorylation and the expression of VEGF and Ang-2 and increased the expression of Ang-1 and ZO-1. It also reduced cerebral infarct size and neurologic dysfunction. Therefore, Src may represent a new therapeutic target for reducing tissue damage caused by increased vascular permeability.
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Affiliation(s)
- L Zan
- Department of Pathology, Shanxi Cancer Hospital, Taiyuan, 3 Zhigong New Street, Xinghualing District, Shanxi 030013, PR China
| | - X Zhang
- Department of Colorectal Surgery, Shanxi Cancer Hospital, Taiyuan 030013, PR China
| | - Y Xi
- Department of Pathology, Shanxi Cancer Hospital, Taiyuan, 3 Zhigong New Street, Xinghualing District, Shanxi 030013, PR China
| | - H Wu
- Department of Pathology, First Affiliated of Harbin Medical University, 23 Youzheng Street, Nangang District, Harbin 150001, PR China
| | - Y Song
- Department of Digestive System, First Affiliated Hospital of Harbin Medical University, Harbin 150001, PR China
| | - G Teng
- Department of Pathology, Jinan Lixia People's Hospital, Jinan 250014, PR China
| | - H Li
- Department of Pathology, First Affiliated of Harbin Medical University, 23 Youzheng Street, Nangang District, Harbin 150001, PR China
| | - J Qi
- Department of Pathology, First Affiliated of Harbin Medical University, 23 Youzheng Street, Nangang District, Harbin 150001, PR China.
| | - J Wang
- Department of Anesthesiology/Critical Care Medicine, Johns Hopkins University, School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD, USA.
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Turel MK, Moorthy RK, Sam GA, Samuel P, Murthy M, Babu KS, Rajshekhar V. Effect of pretreatment with a tyrosine kinase inhibitor (PP1) on brain oedema and neurological function in an automated cortical cryoinjury model in mice. J Clin Neurosci 2013; 20:593-6. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jocn.2012.06.009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/28/2012] [Revised: 06/11/2012] [Accepted: 06/13/2012] [Indexed: 10/27/2022]
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Hossain MI, Roulston CL, Kamaruddin MA, Chu PWY, Ng DCH, Dusting GJ, Bjorge JD, Williamson NA, Fujita DJ, Cheung SN, Chan TO, Hill AF, Cheng HC. A truncated fragment of Src protein kinase generated by calpain-mediated cleavage is a mediator of neuronal death in excitotoxicity. J Biol Chem 2013; 288:9696-9709. [PMID: 23400779 DOI: 10.1074/jbc.m112.419713] [Citation(s) in RCA: 39] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/06/2022] Open
Abstract
Excitotoxicity resulting from overstimulation of glutamate receptors is a major cause of neuronal death in cerebral ischemic stroke. The overstimulated ionotropic glutamate receptors exert their neurotoxic effects in part by overactivation of calpains, which induce neuronal death by catalyzing limited proteolysis of specific cellular proteins. Here, we report that in cultured cortical neurons and in vivo in a rat model of focal ischemic stroke, the tyrosine kinase Src is cleaved by calpains at a site in the N-terminal unique domain. This generates a truncated Src fragment of ~52 kDa, which we localized predominantly to the cytosol. A cell membrane-permeable fusion peptide derived from the unique domain of Src prevents calpain from cleaving Src in neurons and protects against excitotoxic neuronal death. To explore the role of the truncated Src fragment in neuronal death, we expressed a recombinant truncated Src fragment in cultured neurons and examined how it affects neuronal survival. Expression of this fragment, which lacks the myristoylation motif and unique domain, was sufficient to induce neuronal death. Furthermore, inactivation of the prosurvival kinase Akt is a key step in its neurotoxic signaling pathway. Because Src maintains neuronal survival, our results implicate calpain cleavage as a molecular switch converting Src from a promoter of cell survival to a mediator of neuronal death in excitotoxicity. Besides unveiling a new pathological action of Src, our discovery of the neurotoxic action of the truncated Src fragment suggests new therapeutic strategies with the potential to minimize brain damage in ischemic stroke.
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Affiliation(s)
- M Iqbal Hossain
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Bio21 Molecular Science and Biotechnology Institute, University of Melbourne, 30 Flemington Road, Parkville, Victoria 3010, Australia
| | - Carli L Roulston
- O'Brien Institute, 42 Fitzroy Street, Fitzroy, Victoria 3065, Australia; Centre for Eye Research Australia, University of Melbourne, Gisborne Street, East Melbourne 3002, Australia
| | - M Aizuddin Kamaruddin
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Bio21 Molecular Science and Biotechnology Institute, University of Melbourne, 30 Flemington Road, Parkville, Victoria 3010, Australia
| | - Percy W Y Chu
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Bio21 Molecular Science and Biotechnology Institute, University of Melbourne, 30 Flemington Road, Parkville, Victoria 3010, Australia
| | - Dominic C H Ng
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Bio21 Molecular Science and Biotechnology Institute, University of Melbourne, 30 Flemington Road, Parkville, Victoria 3010, Australia
| | - Gregory J Dusting
- O'Brien Institute, 42 Fitzroy Street, Fitzroy, Victoria 3065, Australia; Centre for Eye Research Australia, University of Melbourne, Gisborne Street, East Melbourne 3002, Australia
| | - Jeffrey D Bjorge
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Faculty of Medicine, University of Calgary, Health Sciences Centre, Calgary, Alberta T2N 4N1, Canada
| | - Nicholas A Williamson
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Bio21 Molecular Science and Biotechnology Institute, University of Melbourne, 30 Flemington Road, Parkville, Victoria 3010, Australia
| | - Donald J Fujita
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Faculty of Medicine, University of Calgary, Health Sciences Centre, Calgary, Alberta T2N 4N1, Canada
| | - Steve N Cheung
- Centre for Cellular and Molecular Biology, School of Life and Environmental Sciences, Deakin University, Burwood, Victoria 3125, Australia
| | - Tung O Chan
- Department of Medicine, Center for Translational Medicine, Thomas Jefferson University, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania 19107
| | - Andrew F Hill
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Bio21 Molecular Science and Biotechnology Institute, University of Melbourne, 30 Flemington Road, Parkville, Victoria 3010, Australia
| | - Heung-Chin Cheng
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Bio21 Molecular Science and Biotechnology Institute, University of Melbourne, 30 Flemington Road, Parkville, Victoria 3010, Australia.
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Kim SE, Ko IG, Shin MS, Kim CJ, Ko YG, Cho H. Neuroprotective effects of bovine colostrum on intracerebral hemorrhage-induced apoptotic neuronal cell death in rats. Neural Regen Res 2012; 7:1715-21. [PMID: 25624793 PMCID: PMC4302452 DOI: 10.3969/j.issn.1673-5374.2012.22.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/05/2012] [Accepted: 06/30/2012] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Brain cell death after intracerebral hemorrhage may be mediated in part by an apoptotic mechanism. Colostrum is the first milk produced by mammals for their young. It plays an important role in protection and development by providing various antibodies, growth factors and nutrients, and has been used for various diseases in many countries. In the present study, we investigated the anti-apoptotic effects of bovine colostrum using organotypic hippocampal slice cultures and an intracerebral hemorrhage animal model. We performed densitometric measurements of propidium iodide uptake, a step-down avoidance task, Nissl staining, and caspase-3 immunohistochemistry. The present results revealed that colostrum treatment significantly suppressed N-methyl-D-aspartic acid-induced neuronal cell death in the rat hippocampus. Moreover, colostrum treatment improved short-term memory by suppressing hemorrhage-induced apoptotic neuronal cell death and decreasing the volume of the lesion induced by intracerebral hemorrhage in the rat hippocampus. These results suggest that colostrum may have a beneficial role in recovering brain function following hemorrhagic stroke by suppressing apoptotic cell death.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sung Eun Kim
- Department of Physiology, College of Medicine, Kyung Hee University, Seoul 130-701, Republic of Korea
| | - Il Gyu Ko
- Department of Physiology, College of Medicine, Kyung Hee University, Seoul 130-701, Republic of Korea
| | - Mal Soon Shin
- Department of Physiology, College of Medicine, Kyung Hee University, Seoul 130-701, Republic of Korea
| | - Chang Ju Kim
- Department of Physiology, College of Medicine, Kyung Hee University, Seoul 130-701, Republic of Korea
| | - Young Gwan Ko
- Department of Emergency Medicine, College of Medicine, Kyung Hee University, Seoul 130-701, Republic of Korea
| | - Hanjin Cho
- Department of Emergency Medicine, Korea University Ansan Hospital, Ansan 425-707, Republic of Korea
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Brunswick AS, Hwang BY, Appelboom G, Hwang RY, Piazza MA, Connolly ES. Serum biomarkers of spontaneous intracerebral hemorrhage induced secondary brain injury. J Neurol Sci 2012; 321:1-10. [PMID: 22857988 DOI: 10.1016/j.jns.2012.06.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 39] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/06/2011] [Revised: 06/13/2012] [Accepted: 06/23/2012] [Indexed: 01/01/2023]
Abstract
Intracerebral hemorrhage (ICH) is a devastating form of stroke associated with a high rate of morbidity and mortality. It is now believed that much of this damage occurs in the subacute period following the initial insult via a cascade of complex pathophysiologic pathways that continues to be investigated. Increased levels of certain serum proteins have been identified as biomarkers that may reflect or directly participate in the inflammation, blood brain barrier disruption, endothelial dysfunction, and neuronal and glial toxicity that occur during this secondary period of cerebral injury. Some of these biomarkers have the potential to serve as therapeutic targets or surrogate endpoints for future research or clinical trials. Others may someday augment current clinical techniques in diagnosis, risk-stratification, prognostication, treatment decision and measurement of therapeutic efficacy. While much work remains to be done, biomarkers show significant potential to expand clinical options and improve clinical management, thereby reducing mortality and improving functional outcomes in ICH patients.
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Affiliation(s)
- Andrew S Brunswick
- Department of Neurological Surgery, Columbia University College of Physicians and Surgeons, New York, NY 10032, USA
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31
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Hossain MI, Kamaruddin MA, Cheng HC. Aberrant regulation and function of Src family tyrosine kinases: Their potential contributions to glutamate-induced neurotoxicity. Clin Exp Pharmacol Physiol 2012; 39:684-91. [DOI: 10.1111/j.1440-1681.2011.05621.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
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32
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Keep RF, Hua Y, Xi G. Intracerebral haemorrhage: mechanisms of injury and therapeutic targets. Lancet Neurol 2012; 11:720-31. [PMID: 22698888 DOI: 10.1016/s1474-4422(12)70104-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 904] [Impact Index Per Article: 75.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/08/2023]
Abstract
Intracerebral haemorrhage accounts for about 10-15% of all strokes and is associated with high mortality and morbidity. No successful phase 3 clinical trials for this disorder have been completed. In the past 6 years, the number of preclinical and clinical studies focused on intracerebral haemorrhage has risen. Important advances have been made in animal models of this disorder and in our understanding of mechanisms underlying brain injury after haemorrhage. Several therapeutic targets have subsequently been identified that are now being pursued in clinical trials. Many clinical trials have been based on limited preclinical data, and guidelines to justify taking preclinical results to the clinic are needed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Richard F Keep
- Department of Neurosurgery, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI 48109, USA.
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Bodmer D, Vaughan KA, Zacharia BE, Hickman ZL, Connolly ES. The Molecular Mechanisms that Promote Edema After Intracerebral Hemorrhage. Transl Stroke Res 2012; 3:52-61. [PMID: 24323861 DOI: 10.1007/s12975-012-0162-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/08/2012] [Revised: 03/19/2012] [Accepted: 03/21/2012] [Indexed: 01/01/2023]
Abstract
Intracerebral hemorrhage (ICH) is a devastating type of stroke with no effective therapies. Clinical advances in ICH treatment are limited by an incomplete understanding of the molecular mechanisms responsible for secondary injury and poor outcome. Increasing evidence suggests that cerebral edema is a major contributor to secondary injury and poor outcome in ICH. ICH activates specific signaling pathways that promote edema and damage neuronal tissue. By increasing our understanding of these pathways, we may be able to target them pharmaceutically to reduce edema in ICH patients. In this review, we focus on three major signaling pathways that promote edema after ICH: (1) the coagulation cascade and thrombin, (2) the inflammatory response and matrix metalloproteinases, and (3) the complement cascade and hemoglobin toxicity. We will describe the experimental evidence that confirms these pathways promote edema in ICH, discuss potential targets for new therapies, and comment on important directions for future research.
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Affiliation(s)
- Daniel Bodmer
- Department of Neurological Surgery, The Neurological Institute, Columbia University College of Physicians and Surgeons, New York, NY, 10032, USA
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Liu DZ, Ander BP. Cell cycle inhibition without disruption of neurogenesis is a strategy for treatment of aberrant cell cycle diseases: an update. ScientificWorldJournal 2012; 2012:491737. [PMID: 22547985 PMCID: PMC3323905 DOI: 10.1100/2012/491737] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/13/2011] [Accepted: 11/17/2011] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Since publishing our earlier report describing a strategy for the treatment of central nervous system (CNS) diseases by inhibiting the cell cycle and without disrupting neurogenesis (Liu et al. 2010), we now update and extend this strategy to applications in the treatment of cancers as well. Here, we put forth the concept of "aberrant cell cycle diseases" to include both cancer and CNS diseases, the two unrelated disease types on the surface, by focusing on a common mechanism in each aberrant cell cycle reentry. In this paper, we also summarize the pharmacological approaches that interfere with classical cell cycle molecules and mitogenic pathways to block the cell cycle of tumor cells (in treatment of cancer) as well as to block the cell cycle of neurons (in treatment of CNS diseases). Since cell cycle inhibition can also block proliferation of neural progenitor cells (NPCs) and thus impair brain neurogenesis leading to cognitive deficits, we propose that future strategies aimed at cell cycle inhibition in treatment of aberrant cell cycle diseases (i.e., cancers or CNS diseases) should be designed with consideration of the important side effects on normal neurogenesis and cognition.
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Affiliation(s)
- Da-Zhi Liu
- Department of Neurology and the MIND Institute, University of California at Davis, Sacramento, CA 95817, USA.
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35
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Excitatory and Mitogenic Signaling in Cell Death, Blood-brain Barrier Breakdown, and BBB Repair after Intracerebral Hemorrhage. Transl Stroke Res 2012; 3:62-9. [PMID: 24323862 DOI: 10.1007/s12975-012-0147-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/12/2012] [Revised: 02/18/2012] [Accepted: 02/22/2012] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
Intracerebral hemorrhage (ICH) results in the release of a large number of endogenous molecules, including glutamate, Ca(2+), ROS, thrombin, heme, iron, TNF-α, and others. These molecules participate in excitatory and mitogenic signaling transduction in which N-methyl-D-aspartate (NMDA) receptors and Src family kinases (SFKs) are implicated. Mitogenic signaling initiates the cell cycle for normal cell division of microglia and neural progenitor cells, whereas aberrant mitogenic signaling causes toxicity, killing neurons, astrocytes, and brain microvascular endothelial cells in neurological diseases including ICH. In this review, we summarize (1) how SFKs modulate NMDA receptors to kill neurons following ICH and (2) how SFKs modulate mitogenic signaling transduction to kill neurons and play a role in disrupting the blood-brain barrier (BBB) immediately following ICH and in repairing the BBB during the recovery phases weeks following ICH.
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36
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Frantzias J, Sena ES, Macleod MR, Al-Shahi Salman R. Treatment of intracerebral hemorrhage in animal models: meta-analysis. Ann Neurol 2011; 69:389-99. [PMID: 21387381 DOI: 10.1002/ana.22243] [Citation(s) in RCA: 53] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE Interventions that improve functional outcome after acute intracerebral hemorrhage (ICH) in animals might benefit humans. Therefore, we systematically reviewed the literature to find studies of nonsurgical treatments tested in animal models of ICH. METHODS In July 2009 we searched Ovid Medline (from 1950), Embase (from 1980), and ISI Web of Knowledge (from 1969) for controlled animal studies of nonsurgical interventions given after the induction of ICH that reported neurobehavioral outcome. We assessed study quality and performed meta-analysis using a weighted mean difference random effects model. RESULTS Of 13,343 publications, 88 controlled studies described the effects of 64 different medical interventions (given a median of 2 hours after ICH induction) on 38 different neurobehavioral scales in 2,616 treated or control animals (median 14 rodents per study). Twenty-seven (31%) studies randomized treatment allocation, and 7 (8%) reported allocation concealment; these studies had significantly smaller effect sizes than those without these attributes (p < 0.001). Of 64 interventions stem cells, calcium channel blockers, anti-inflammatory drugs, iron chelators, and estrogens improved both structural outcomes and neurobehavioral scores in >1 study. Meta-regression revealed that together, structural outcome and the intervention used accounted for 65% of the observed heterogeneity in neurobehavioral score (p < 0.001, adjusted r(2) = 0.65). INTERPRETATION Further animal studies of the interventions that we found to improve both functional and structural outcomes in animals, using better experimental designs, could target efforts to translate effective treatments for ICH in animals into randomized controlled trials in humans.
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Affiliation(s)
- Joseph Frantzias
- Division of Clinical Neurosciences, Centre for Clinical Brain Sciences, University of Edinburgh, United Kingdom
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37
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Liu DZ, Sharp FR. The dual role of SRC kinases in intracerebral hemorrhage. ACTA NEUROCHIRURGICA. SUPPLEMENT 2011; 111:77-81. [PMID: 21725735 DOI: 10.1007/978-3-7091-0693-8_13] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
Src kinase signaling has been implicated in multiple mechanisms of intracerebral hemorrhage (ICH). These include (1) thrombin-mediated mitogenic stress, (2) excitatory amino acid (AA)-mediated excitatory toxicity, (3) vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) and matrix metalloproteinases (MMPs)-mediated changes of vascular permeability, (4) cytokines-mediated inflammatory responses, and (5) others. These work together after ICH, causing brain injuries in the acute stage and self-repair in the recovery stage. We found that acute administration of the Src inhibitor, PP2, blocks the blood-brain barrier (BBB) breakdown and brain edema that occurs after ICH. However, delayed and chronic administration of PP2 prevents the BBB repair and edema resolution after ICH. These results led us to suggest that the two contradictory findings share the same principles at least in part via activation of Src kinases in acute or recovery stages after ICH. Acute Src kinase activation after ICH leads to BBB damage, and chronic Src kinase activation after ICH leads to BBB repair.
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Affiliation(s)
- Da-Zhi Liu
- Department of Neurology and the MIND Institute, University of California at Davis Medical Center, Sacramento, CA 95817, USA.
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38
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Hwang BY, Appelboom G, Ayer A, Kellner CP, Kotchetkov IS, Gigante PR, Haque R, Kellner M, Connolly ES. Advances in neuroprotective strategies: potential therapies for intracerebral hemorrhage. Cerebrovasc Dis 2010; 31:211-22. [PMID: 21178344 DOI: 10.1159/000321870] [Citation(s) in RCA: 97] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/03/2010] [Accepted: 09/25/2010] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
Intracerebral hemorrhage (ICH) is associated with higher mortality and morbidity than any other form of stroke. However, there currently are no treatments proven to improve outcomes after ICH, and therefore, new effective therapies are urgently needed. Growing insight into ICH pathophysiology has led to the development of neuroprotective strategies that aim to improve the outcome through reduction of secondary pathologic processes. Many neuroprotectants target molecules or pathways involved in hematoma degradation, inflammation or apoptosis, and have demonstrated potential clinical benefits in experimental settings. We extensively reviewed the current understanding of ICH pathophysiology as well as promising experimental neuroprotective agents with particular focus on their mechanisms of action. Continued advances in ICH knowledge, increased understanding of neuroprotective mechanisms, and improvement in the ability to modulate molecular and pathologic events with multitargeting agents will lead to successful clinical trials and bench-to-bedside translation of neuroprotective strategies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Brian Y Hwang
- Department of Neurological Surgery, Columbia University College of Physicians and Surgeons, New York, N.Y. 10032, USA
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39
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Katsuki H. Exploring neuroprotective drug therapies for intracerebral hemorrhage. J Pharmacol Sci 2010; 114:366-78. [PMID: 21081835 DOI: 10.1254/jphs.10r05cr] [Citation(s) in RCA: 46] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/27/2023] Open
Abstract
Intracerebral hemorrhage (ICH) is a devastating neurological disorder with high mortality and poor prognosis, for which virtually no effective drug therapies are available at present. Experimental animal models, based on intrastriatal injection of collagenase or autologous blood, have enabled great advances in elucidation of cellular/molecular events contributing to brain pathogenesis associated with ICH. Many lines of evidence indicate that blood constituents, including hemoglobin-derived products as well as proteases such as thrombin, play important roles in the pathogenic events. Inflammatory reactions involving neutrophils, activated microglia, and production of proinflammatory cytokines also constitute a critical aspect of pathology leading to neurodegeneration and tissue damage. Efforts are continuing to find drugs that potentially alleviate pathological and neurological outcomes of ICH. Various drugs that possess antioxidative, anti-inflammatory or neurotrophic/neuroprotective properties have been demonstrated to produce therapeutic effects on ICH animal models. Drugs already in clinical use such as minocycline, statins, and several nuclear receptor ligands are among the list of effective drugs, but whether they also show therapeutic efficacy in human ICH patients remains unproven. Here, current knowledge of ICH pathogenesis and problems arising with respect to exploration of new drug candidates are discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hiroshi Katsuki
- Department of Chemico-Pharmacological Sciences, Graduate School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Kumamoto University, 5-1 Oe-honmachi, Kumamoto 862-0973, Japan.
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40
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Jaremko KM, Chen-Roetling J, Chen L, Regan RF. Accelerated hemolysis and neurotoxicity in neuron-glia-blood clot co-cultures. J Neurochem 2010; 114:1063-73. [PMID: 20497302 DOI: 10.1111/j.1471-4159.2010.06826.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/26/2022]
Abstract
A growing body of experimental evidence suggests that an intracerebral hematoma is toxic to neighboring cells. However, injury mechanisms remain largely undefined, due in part to conflicting results from in vivo studies. In order to investigate blood toxicity in a more controlled environment, murine clots were co-cultured on porous membrane inserts with primary neurons and glia. Erythrocyte lysis was apparent within 48 h, but was reduced by almost 80% in cultures lacking neurons, and by over 90% in the absence of both neurons and glial cells. By 72 h, most released hemoglobin had oxidized to methemoglobin or its hemichrome degradation products. At this time point, approximately 50% of neurons were non-viable, as detected by propidium iodide staining; glia were not injured. Deferoxamine, Trolox and the NMDA receptor antagonist MK-801 prevented most neuronal death, but had no effect on hemolysis at neuroprotective concentrations. The 27-fold increase in culture malondialdehyde and 5.8-fold increase in heme oxygenase-1 expression were also attenuated by deferoxamine and Trolox, but not by MK-801. These results suggest that hemoglobin release from clotted blood is accelerated by adjacent neurons and glia. Subsequent neurotoxicity is mediated by both iron-dependent and excitotoxic injury pathways.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kellie M Jaremko
- Department of Emergency Medicine, Thomas Jefferson University, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania 19107, USA
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Liu DZ, Ander BP, Xu H, Shen Y, Kaur P, Deng W, Sharp FR. Blood-brain barrier breakdown and repair by Src after thrombin-induced injury. Ann Neurol 2010; 67:526-33. [PMID: 20437588 DOI: 10.1002/ana.21924] [Citation(s) in RCA: 123] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/06/2022]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE Thrombin mediates the life-threatening cerebral edema that occurs after intracerebral hemorrhage. Therefore, we examined the mechanisms of thrombin-induced injury to the blood-brain barrier (BBB) and subsequent mechanisms of BBB repair. METHODS Intracerebroventricular injection of thrombin (20U) was used to model intraventricular hemorrhage in adult rats. RESULTS Thrombin reduced brain microvascular endothelial cell (BMVEC) and perivascular astrocyte immunoreactivity-indicating either cell injury or death-and functionally disrupted the BBB as measured by increased water content and extravasation of sodium fluorescein and Evans blue dyes 24 hours later. Administration of nonspecific Src family kinase inhibitor (PP2) immediately after thrombin injections blocked brain edema and BBB disruption. At 7 to 14 days after thrombin injections, newborn endothelial cells and astrocytes were observed around cerebral vessels at the time when BBB permeability and cerebral water content resolved. Delayed administration of PP2 on days 2 through 6 after thrombin injections prevented resolution of the edema and abnormal BBB permeability. INTERPRETATION Thrombin, via its protease-activated receptors, is postulated to activate Src kinase phosphorylation of molecules that acutely injure the BBB and produce edema. Thus, acute administration of Src antagonists blocks edema. In contrast, Src blockade for 2 to 6 days after thrombin injections is postulated to prevent resolution of edema and abnormal BBB permeability in part because Src kinase proto-oncogene members stimulate proliferation of newborn BMVECs and perivascular astrocytes in the neurovascular niche that repair the damaged BBB. Thus, Src kinases not only mediate acute BBB injury but also mediate chronic BBB repair after thrombin-induced injury.
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Affiliation(s)
- Da-Zhi Liu
- Department of Neurology, University of California at Davis, Sacramento, CA 95817, USA.
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Liu DZ, Ander BP, Sharp FR. Cell cycle inhibition without disruption of neurogenesis is a strategy for treatment of central nervous system diseases. Neurobiol Dis 2009; 37:549-57. [PMID: 19944161 DOI: 10.1016/j.nbd.2009.11.013] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/01/2009] [Revised: 11/10/2009] [Accepted: 11/18/2009] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Classically, the cell cycle is regarded as the process leading to cellular proliferation. However, increasing evidence over the last decade supports the notion that neuronal cell cycle re-entry results in post-mitotic death. A mature neuron that re-enters the cell cycle can neither advance to a new G0 quiescent state nor revert to its earlier G0 state. This presents a critical dilemma to the neuron from which death may be an unavoidable but necessary outcome for adult neurons attempting to complete the cell cycle. In contrast, tumor cells that undergo aberrant cell cycle re-entry divide and can survive. Thus, cell cycle inhibition strategies are of interest in cancer treatment but may also represent an important means of protecting neurons. In this review, we put forth the concept of the "expanded cell cycle" and summarize the cell cycle proteins, signal transduction events and mitogenic molecules that can drive a neuron into the cell cycle in various CNS diseases. We also discuss the pharmacological approaches that interfere with the mitogenic pathways and prevent mature neurons from attempting cell cycle re-entry, protecting them from cell death. Lastly, future attempts at blocking the cell cycle to rescue mature neurons from injury should be designed so as to not block normal neurogenesis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Da-Zhi Liu
- Department of Neurology and the M.I.N.D. Institute, University of California at Davis, Sacramento, CA 95817, USA.
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43
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Lv L, Liu Y, Shi HF, Dong Q. Qingkailing injection attenuates apoptosis and neurologic deficits in a rat model of intracerebral hemorrhage. JOURNAL OF ETHNOPHARMACOLOGY 2009; 125:269-273. [PMID: 19580859 DOI: 10.1016/j.jep.2009.06.031] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/19/2009] [Revised: 06/22/2009] [Accepted: 06/26/2009] [Indexed: 05/28/2023]
Abstract
AIM OF THE STUDY Traditional Chinese herb Angong Niuhuang Pill (AGNHP) is a famous preparation for neurological diseases; Qingkailing injection (QKL), an extract of AGNHP has similar clinical applications. This investigation was designed to further elucidate the neuroprotective effect of QKL on intracerebral hemorrhage (ICH). MATERIALS AND METHODS ICH was produced in adult Sprague-Dawley rats by injection of collagenase IV. Three incremental doses of QKL injection including low-(0.5 ml/kg), moderate-(1 ml/kg) and high-dosage (2 ml/kg) were administered twice, 3 and 12h following ICH. TUNEL and caspase-3 activity were measured at 1d after ICH, and apomorphine-induced rotation was evaluated at 1d, 7d, 14 d and 28 d. RESULTS Administration of high-dose QKL inhibited TUNEL positive cells (p<0.05) and caspase-3 activity (p<0.05) at 1d following ICH, and reduced apomorphine-induced rotation at 1d (p<0.01), 7d, 14 d and 28 d (p<0.05), compared with the controls. However, QKL in a low or moderate dose had no such effect. CONCLUSION QKL reduced brain damage of intracerebral hemorrhage through inhibiting apoptosis, which suggested a potential intervention for ICH patients.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lei Lv
- Department of Neurology, Huashan Hospital, Fudan University, Shanghai 200040, PR China
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Intracerebral hemorrhage injury mechanisms: glutamate neurotoxicity, thrombin, and Src. ACTA NEUROCHIRURGICA. SUPPLEMENT 2009; 105:43-6. [PMID: 19066080 DOI: 10.1007/978-3-211-09469-3_9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 42] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/24/2022]
Abstract
The mechanisms accounting for variable increases in blood flow and seizures following intracerebral hemorrhage (ICH) are unknown. Local cerebral glucose utilization (LCGU) studies performed to address this issue demonstrate increased LCGU within hours around an ICH that is blocked by NMDA and AMPA glutamate receptor antagonists. Local injections of NMDA or AMPA increased LCGU whereas glutamate did not, suggesting an ICH effect on glutamate uptake or glutamate receptors. To address these possibilities, we performed genomic studies of brain following ICH. Among the many regulated genes, an Src family member, Lyn, increased expression over 20-fold. This was important, since Src is known to phosphorylate NMDA receptors and augment their function, and thrombin is known to activate PARs that activate Src. This prompted us to study the Src antagonist, PP2. PP2 decreased LCGU and cell death around ICH and improved behavioral function following ICH. This data leads us to suggest our hypothesis, that ICH, possibly via thrombin activation of protease-activated receptors, activates Src that phosphorylates NMDA receptors and other proteins that mediate injury after ICH.
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Wang J, Fields J, Doré S. The development of an improved preclinical mouse model of intracerebral hemorrhage using double infusion of autologous whole blood. Brain Res 2008; 1222:214-21. [PMID: 18586227 DOI: 10.1016/j.brainres.2008.05.058] [Citation(s) in RCA: 46] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/25/2008] [Revised: 05/14/2008] [Accepted: 05/17/2008] [Indexed: 10/22/2022]
Abstract
The present study was conducted in mice to validate a double blood infusion model of intracerebral hemorrhage (ICH) that does not use anticoagulant. We investigated the effect of intrastriatal infusion of blood on hematoma volume, neurologic function, brain edema and swelling, and markers of neuroinflammation and oxidative DNA damage. Anesthetized C57BL/6 adult male mice were infused in the left striatum with 4 microl of blood over 20 min at 0.2 microl /min; the needle was left in place for 7 min, and the remaining 6 microl of blood was then infused over 30 min. The injection needle was slowly withdrawn 20 min after the second injection. Sham-operated control mice received only needle insertion. The hematoma produced in this model was primarily restricted to the striatum, and the mice demonstrated severe neurologic deficits that appeared within 60 min and remained evident at 72 h. Brain water content and swelling were significantly increased and were associated with a marked increase in ICH-induced neutrophil infiltration, microglial/macrophage and astrocyte activation, cytochrome c release, and oxidative DNA damage. Other groups have mixed the anticoagulant heparin with the infused blood, an agent that could affect in vivo clot formation. We believe that this double blood infusion model that does not use anticoagulant improves upon the procedure and provides an easy and reproducible alternative for inducing ICH in mice; it should be useful for studying the pathophysiology of ICH and for testing potential pharmaceutical and surgical interventions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jian Wang
- Department of Anesthesiology/Critical Care Medicine, School of Medicine, Johns Hopkins University, 720 Rutland Avenue, Baltimore, MD 21205, USA.
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Jiang X, Mu D, Biran V, Faustino J, Chang S, Rincón CM, Sheldon RA, Ferriero DM. Activated Src kinases interact with theN-methyl-D-aspartate receptor after neonatal brain ischemia. Ann Neurol 2008; 63:632-41. [DOI: 10.1002/ana.21365] [Citation(s) in RCA: 46] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/03/2023]
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Liu DZ, Cheng XY, Ander BP, Xu H, Davis RR, Gregg JP, Sharp FR. Src kinase inhibition decreases thrombin-induced injury and cell cycle re-entry in striatal neurons. Neurobiol Dis 2008; 30:201-11. [PMID: 18343677 DOI: 10.1016/j.nbd.2008.01.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/06/2007] [Revised: 12/24/2007] [Accepted: 01/19/2008] [Indexed: 10/22/2022] Open
Abstract
Since Src kinase inhibitors decrease brain injury produced by intracerebral hemorrhage (ICH) and thrombin is activated following ICH, this study determined whether Src kinase inhibitors decrease thrombin-induced brain injury. Thrombin injections into adult rat striatum produced focal infarction and motor deficits. The Src kinase inhibitor PP2 decreased thrombin-induced Src activation, infarction in striatum and motor deficits in vivo. Thrombin applied to cultured post-mitotic striatal neurons caused: injury to axons and dendrites; many TUNEL positive neuronal nuclei; and re-entry into the cell cycle as manifested by cyclin D1 expression, induction of several other cell cycle genes and cyclin-dependent kinase 4 activation. PP2 dose-dependently attenuated thrombin-induced injury to the cultured neurons; and attenuated thrombin-induced neuronal cell cycle re-entry. These results are consistent with the hypotheses that Src kinase inhibitors decrease injury produced by ICH by decreasing thrombin activation of Src kinases and, at least in part, by decreasing Src induced cell cycle re-entry.
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Affiliation(s)
- Da-Zhi Liu
- Department of Neurology, MIND Institute, Neuroscience and Genetics Graduate Programs, University of California at Davis, Sacramento, California 95817, USA.
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Interleukin-1-induced interleukin-6 synthesis is mediated by the neutral sphingomyelinase/Src kinase pathway in neurones. Br J Pharmacol 2007; 153:775-83. [PMID: 18059318 DOI: 10.1038/sj.bjp.0707610] [Citation(s) in RCA: 50] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/08/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND AND PURPOSE Interleukin (IL)-1 is a key mediator of inflammatory and host defence responses and its effects in the brain are mediated primarily via effects on glia. IL-1 induces release of inflammatory mediators such as IL-6 from glia via the type-1 receptor (IL-1R1) and established signalling mechanisms including mitogen-activated protein kinases and nuclear factor kappa-B. IL-1 also modifies physiological functions via actions on neurones, through activation of the neutral sphingomyelinase (nSMase)/Src kinase signalling pathway, although the mechanism of IL-1-induced IL-6 synthesis in neurones remains unknown. EXPERIMENTAL APPROACH Primary mouse neuronal cell cultures, ELISA, Western blot and immunocytochemistry techniques were used. KEY RESULTS We show here that IL-1beta induces the synthesis of IL-6 in primary mouse neuronal cultures, and this is dependent on the activation of IL-1R1, nSMase and Src kinase. We demonstrate that IL-1beta-induced Src kinase activation triggers the phosphorylation of the NMDA receptor NR2B subunit, leading to activation of Ca(2+)/calmodulin-dependent protein kinase II (CamKII) and the nuclear transcription factor CREB. We also show that NR2B, CamKII and CREB are essential signalling elements involved in IL-1beta-induced IL-6 synthesis in neurones. CONCLUSIONS AND IMPLICATIONS These results demonstrate that IL-1 interacts with the same receptors on neurones and glia to elicit IL-6 release, but does so via distinct signalling pathways. The mechanism by which IL-1beta induces IL-6 synthesis in neurones could be critical in both physiological and pathophysiological actions of IL-1beta, and may provide a new therapeutic target for the treatment of acute CNS injury.
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