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Slivac K, Flecken M. Linguistic Priors for Perception. Top Cogn Sci 2023; 15:657-661. [PMID: 37335972 DOI: 10.1111/tops.12672] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/21/2023] [Accepted: 05/26/2023] [Indexed: 06/21/2023]
Abstract
In this commentary, we approach the topic of linguistic relativity from a predictive coding perspective. Discussing the role of "priors" in shaping perception, we argue that language creates an important set of priors for humans, which can affect how sensory information is processed and interpreted. Namely, languages create conventionalized conceptual systems for their speakers, mirroring and reinforcing what is behaviorally important in a society. As such, they create collective conceptual convergence on how to categorize the world and thus "streamline" what people rely on to guide their perception.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ksenija Slivac
- Max Planck Institute for Human Cognitive and Brain Sciences, Leipzig
| | - Monique Flecken
- Department of Literary Studies and Linguistics, University of Amsterdam
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2
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Norman T, Peleg O. Visual simulations in the two cerebral hemispheres: A bilingual perspective. BRAIN AND LANGUAGE 2023; 242:105291. [PMID: 37276683 DOI: 10.1016/j.bandl.2023.105291] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/27/2022] [Revised: 05/19/2023] [Accepted: 05/26/2023] [Indexed: 06/07/2023]
Abstract
The ability of each hemisphere to construct visual simulations during first language (L1) and second language (L2) sentence reading was investigated. Late bilinguals read L1 and L2 sentences and decided after each sentence whether a pictured object was mentioned in the sentence. Target pictures were presented laterally in the left/right visual field (LVF/RVF) to the right/left hemisphere (RH/LH), respectively. 'Yes' responses were faster when the pictured object's shape matched, rather than mismatched, the sentence-implied shape, irrespective of the language involved. Critically, this visual shape effect was significant only under LVF/RH presentation, indicating that visual simulations are more likely to occur in the RH than in the LH. The fact that a similar experiment with central picture presentation has produced a significant shape effect only in the L1 (Norman & Peleg, 2022), suggests that under normal (central) reading conditions, the RH may be less involved in L2 than in L1 reading.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tal Norman
- The Program of Cognitive Studies of Language and its Uses, Tel Aviv University, Ramat Aviv 6997801 Tel Aviv, Israel; The Department of Communication Sciences and Disorders, University of Haifa, 199 Aba Khoushy Ave. Mount Carmel, Haifa, Israel.
| | - Orna Peleg
- The Program of Cognitive Studies of Language and its Uses, Tel Aviv University, Ramat Aviv 6997801 Tel Aviv, Israel; Sagol School of Neuroscience, Tel-Aviv University, Ramat Aviv 6997801 Tel Aviv, Israel.
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3
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Abstract
According to the language marker hypothesis language has provided homo sapiens with a rich symbolic system that plays a central role in interpreting signals delivered by our sensory apparatus, in shaping action goals, and in creating a powerful tool for reasoning and inferencing. This view provides an important correction on embodied accounts of language that reduce language to action, perception, emotion and mental simulation. The presence of a language system has, however, also important consequences for perception, action, emotion, and memory. Language stamps signals from perception, action, and emotional systems with rich cognitive markers that transform the role of these signals in the overall cognitive architecture of the human mind. This view does not deny that language is implemented by means of universal principles of neural organization. However, language creates the possibility to generate rich internal models of the world that are shaped and made accessible by the characteristics of a language system. This makes us less dependent on direct action-perception couplings and might even sometimes go at the expense of the veridicality of perception. In cognitive (neuro)science the pendulum has swung from language as the key to understand the organization of the human mind to the perspective that it is a byproduct of perception and action. It is time that it partly swings back again.
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Affiliation(s)
- Peter Hagoort
- Max Planck Institute for Psycholinguistics, & Donders Institute for Brain, Cognition and Behaviour, Radboud University Nijmegen, the Netherlands.
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4
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Linguistic labels cue biological motion perception and misperception. Sci Rep 2021; 11:17239. [PMID: 34446746 PMCID: PMC8390742 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-021-96649-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/26/2021] [Accepted: 08/05/2021] [Indexed: 11/24/2022] Open
Abstract
Linguistic labels exert a particularly strong top-down influence on perception. The potency of this influence has been ascribed to their ability to evoke category-diagnostic features of concepts. In doing this, they facilitate the formation of a perceptual template concordant with those features, effectively biasing perceptual activation towards the labelled category. In this study, we employ a cueing paradigm with moving, point-light stimuli across three experiments, in order to examine how the number of biological motion features (form and kinematics) encoded in lexical cues modulates the efficacy of lexical top-down influence on perception. We find that the magnitude of lexical influence on biological motion perception rises as a function of the number of biological motion-relevant features carried by both cue and target. When lexical cues encode multiple biological motion features, this influence is robust enough to mislead participants into reporting erroneous percepts, even when a masking level yielding high performance is used.
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5
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Paffen CLE, Sahakian A, Struiksma ME, Van der Stigchel S. Unpredictive linguistic verbal cues accelerate congruent visual targets into awareness in a breaking continuous flash suppression paradigm. Atten Percept Psychophys 2021; 83:2102-2112. [PMID: 33786749 PMCID: PMC8213547 DOI: 10.3758/s13414-021-02297-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 03/02/2021] [Indexed: 12/03/2022]
Abstract
One of the most influential ideas within the domain of cognition is that of embodied cognition, in which the experienced world is the result of an interplay between an organism's physiology, sensorimotor system, and its environment. An aspect of this idea is that linguistic information activates sensory representations automatically. For example, hearing the word 'red' would automatically activate sensory representations of this color. But does linguistic information prioritize access to awareness of congruent visual information? Here, we show that linguistic verbal cues accelerate matching visual targets into awareness by using a breaking continuous flash suppression paradigm. In a speeded reaction time task, observers heard spoken color labels (e.g., red) followed by colored targets that were either congruent (red), incongruent (green), or neutral (a neutral noncolor word) with respect to the labels. Importantly, and in contrast to previous studies investigating a similar question, the incidence of congruent trials was not higher than that of incongruent trials. Our results show that RTs were selectively shortened for congruent verbal-visual pairings, and that this shortening occurred over a wide range of cue-target intervals. We suggest that linguistic verbal information preactivates sensory representations, so that hearing the word 'red' preactivates (visual) sensory information internally.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chris L E Paffen
- Department of Experimental Psychology & Helmholtz Institute, Utrecht University, Heidelberglaan 2, 3584 CS, Utrecht, the Netherlands.
| | - Andre Sahakian
- Department of Experimental Psychology & Helmholtz Institute, Utrecht University, Heidelberglaan 2, 3584 CS, Utrecht, the Netherlands
| | - Marijn E Struiksma
- Department of Language, Literature & Communication, Utrecht Institute of Linguistics OTS, Utrecht University, Utrecht, the Netherlands
| | - Stefan Van der Stigchel
- Department of Experimental Psychology & Helmholtz Institute, Utrecht University, Heidelberglaan 2, 3584 CS, Utrecht, the Netherlands
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6
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Schiller NO, Boutonnet BPA, De Heer Kloots MLS, Meelen M, Ruijgrok B, Cheng LLS. (Not so) Great Expectations: Listening to Foreign-Accented Speech Reduces the Brain's Anticipatory Processes. Front Psychol 2020; 11:2143. [PMID: 32982877 PMCID: PMC7479827 DOI: 10.3389/fpsyg.2020.02143] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/25/2020] [Accepted: 07/31/2020] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
This study examines the effect of foreign-accented speech on the predictive ability of our brain. Listeners actively anticipate upcoming linguistic information in the speech signal so as to facilitate and reduce processing load. However, it is unclear whether or not listeners also do this when they are exposed to speech from non-native speakers. In the present study, we exposed native Dutch listeners to sentences produced by native and non-native speakers while measuring their brain activity using electroencephalography. We found that listeners’ brain activity differed depending on whether they listened to native or non-native speech. However, participants’ overall performance as measured by word recall rate was unaffected. We discussed the results in relation to previous findings as well as the automaticity of anticipation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Niels O Schiller
- Leiden University Centre for Linguistics, Leiden University, Leiden, Netherlands.,Leiden Institute for Brain and Cognition, Leiden, Netherlands
| | | | | | - Marieke Meelen
- Leiden University Centre for Linguistics, Leiden University, Leiden, Netherlands
| | - Bobby Ruijgrok
- Leiden University Centre for Linguistics, Leiden University, Leiden, Netherlands.,Leiden Institute for Brain and Cognition, Leiden, Netherlands
| | - Lisa L-S Cheng
- Leiden University Centre for Linguistics, Leiden University, Leiden, Netherlands.,Leiden Institute for Brain and Cognition, Leiden, Netherlands
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7
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Todorova L, Neville DA. Associative and Identity Words Promote the Speed of Visual Categorization: A Hierarchical Drift Diffusion Account. Front Psychol 2020; 11:955. [PMID: 32793015 PMCID: PMC7390986 DOI: 10.3389/fpsyg.2020.00955] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/16/2019] [Accepted: 04/17/2020] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Words can either boost or hinder the processing of visual information, which can lead to facilitation or interference of the behavioral response. We investigated the stage (response execution or target processing) of verbal interference/facilitation in the response priming paradigm with a gender categorization task. Participants in our study were asked to judge whether the presented stimulus was a female or male face that was briefly preceded by a gender word either congruent (prime: "man," target: "man"), incongruent (prime: "woman," target: "man") or neutral (prime: "day," target: "man") with respect to the face stimulus. We investigated whether related word-picture pairs resulted in faster reaction times in comparison to the neutral word-picture pairs (facilitation) and whether unrelated word-picture pairs resulted in slower reaction times in comparison to neutral word-picture pairs (interference). We further examined whether these effects (if any) map onto response conflict or aspects of target processing. In addition, identity ("man," "woman") and associative ("tie," "dress") primes were introduced to investigate the cognitive mechanisms of semantic and Stroop-like effects in response priming (introduced respectively by associations and identity words). We analyzed responses and reaction times using the drift diffusion model to examine the effect of facilitation and/or interference as a function of the prime type. We found that regardless of prime type words introduce a facilitatory effect, which maps to the processes of visual attention and response execution.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lara Todorova
- Donders Institute for Brain, Cognition and Behaviour, Radboud University, Nijmegen, Netherlands
| | - David A Neville
- Donders Institute for Brain, Cognition and Behaviour, Radboud University, Nijmegen, Netherlands
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8
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Athanasopoulos P, Casaponsa A. The Whorfian brain: Neuroscientific approaches to linguistic relativity. Cogn Neuropsychol 2020; 37:393-412. [DOI: 10.1080/02643294.2020.1769050] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/31/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Panos Athanasopoulos
- Department of Linguistics and English Language, Lancaster University, Lancaster, UK
| | - Aina Casaponsa
- Department of Linguistics and English Language, Lancaster University, Lancaster, UK
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9
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Speed LJ, Majid A. Linguistic features of fragrances: The role of grammatical gender and gender associations. Atten Percept Psychophys 2019; 81:2063-2077. [PMID: 31044396 PMCID: PMC6675776 DOI: 10.3758/s13414-019-01729-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
Abstract
Odors are often difficult to identify and name, which leaves them vulnerable to the influence of language. The present study tests the boundaries of the effect of language on odor cognition by examining the effect of grammatical gender. We presented participants with male and female fragrances paired with descriptions of masculine or feminine grammatical gender. In Experiment 1 we found that memory for fragrances was enhanced when the grammatical gender of a fragrance description matched the gender of the fragrance. In Experiment 2 we found memory for fragrances was affected by both grammatical gender and gender associations in fragrance descriptions - recognition memory for odors was higher when the gender was incongruent. In sum, we demonstrated that even subtle aspects of language can affect odor cognition.
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Affiliation(s)
- Laura J Speed
- Department of Psychology, University of York, York, UK.
- Centre for Language Studies, Radboud University, Nijmegen, The Netherlands.
| | - Asifa Majid
- Department of Psychology, University of York, York, UK
- Centre for Language Studies, Radboud University, Nijmegen, The Netherlands
- Max Planck Institute for Psycholinguistics, Nijmegen, The Netherlands
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10
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Flecken M, van Bergen G. Can the English stand the bottle like the Dutch? Effects of relational categories on object perception. Cogn Neuropsychol 2019; 37:271-287. [DOI: 10.1080/02643294.2019.1607272] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/26/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Monique Flecken
- Neurobiology of Language Department, Max Planck Institute for Psycholinguistics, Nijmegen, the Netherlands
- Donders Institute for Brain, Cognition and Behaviour, Radboud University, Nijmegen, the Netherlands
| | - Geertje van Bergen
- Neurobiology of Language Department, Max Planck Institute for Psycholinguistics, Nijmegen, the Netherlands
- Donders Institute for Brain, Cognition and Behaviour, Radboud University, Nijmegen, the Netherlands
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11
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Effects of meaningfulness on perception: Alpha-band oscillations carry perceptual expectations and influence early visual responses. Sci Rep 2018; 8:6606. [PMID: 29700428 PMCID: PMC5920106 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-018-25093-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/22/2017] [Accepted: 04/09/2018] [Indexed: 12/03/2022] Open
Abstract
Perceptual experience results from a complex interplay of bottom-up input and prior knowledge about the world, yet the extent to which knowledge affects perception, the neural mechanisms underlying these effects, and the stages of processing at which these two sources of information converge, are still unclear. In several experiments we show that language, in the form of verbal labels, both aids recognition of ambiguous “Mooney” images and improves objective visual discrimination performance in a match/non-match task. We then used electroencephalography (EEG) to better understand the mechanisms of this effect. The improved discrimination of images previously labeled was accompanied by a larger occipital-parietal P1 evoked response to the meaningful versus meaningless target stimuli. Time-frequency analysis of the interval between the cue and the target stimulus revealed increases in the power of posterior alpha-band (8–14 Hz) oscillations when the meaning of the stimuli to be compared was trained. The magnitude of the pre-target alpha difference and the P1 amplitude difference were positively correlated across individuals. These results suggest that prior knowledge prepares the brain for upcoming perception via the modulation of alpha-band oscillations, and that this preparatory state influences early (~120 ms) stages of visual processing.
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12
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Abstract
The present study investigated whether aurally presented mimetic words affect the judgment of the final position of a moving object. In Experiment 1, horizontal apparent motion of a visual target was presented, and an auditory mimetic word of “byun” (representing rapid forward motion), “pitari” (representing stop of motion), or “nisahi” (nonsense syllable) was presented via headphones. Observers were asked to judge which of two test stimuli was horizontally aligned with the target. The results showed that forward displacement in the “pitari” condition was significantly smaller than in the “byun” and “nisahi” conditions. However, when non-mimetic but meaningful words were presented (Experiment 2), this effect did not occur. Our findings suggest that the mimetic words, especially that meaning stop of motion, affect spatial localization by means of mental imagery regarding “stop” established by the phonological information of the word.
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Affiliation(s)
- Akihiko Gobara
- Kyushu University, Japan; Japan Society for the Promotion of Science, Japan
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13
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Exploring the automaticity of language-perception interactions: Effects of attention and awareness. Sci Rep 2015; 5:17725. [PMID: 26640162 PMCID: PMC4671057 DOI: 10.1038/srep17725] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/22/2015] [Accepted: 11/03/2015] [Indexed: 11/22/2022] Open
Abstract
Previous studies have shown that language can modulate visual perception, by biasing and/or enhancing perceptual performance. However, it is still debated where in the brain visual and linguistic information are integrated, and whether the effects of language on perception are automatic and persist even in the absence of awareness of the linguistic material. Here, we aimed to explore the automaticity of language-perception interactions and the neural loci of these interactions in an fMRI study. Participants engaged in a visual motion discrimination task (upward or downward moving dots). Before each trial, a word prime was briefly presented that implied upward or downward motion (e.g., “rise”, “fall”). These word primes strongly influenced behavior: congruent motion words sped up reaction times and improved performance relative to incongruent motion words. Neural congruency effects were only observed in the left middle temporal gyrus, showing higher activity for congruent compared to incongruent conditions. This suggests that higher-level conceptual areas rather than sensory areas are the locus of language-perception interactions. When motion words were rendered unaware by means of masking, they still affected visual motion perception, suggesting that language-perception interactions may rely on automatic feed-forward integration of perceptual and semantic material in language areas of the brain.
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14
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Boutonnet B, Lupyan G. Words Jump-Start Vision: A Label Advantage in Object Recognition. J Neurosci 2015; 35:9329-35. [PMID: 26109657 PMCID: PMC6605198 DOI: 10.1523/jneurosci.5111-14.2015] [Citation(s) in RCA: 63] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/18/2014] [Revised: 04/08/2015] [Accepted: 05/10/2015] [Indexed: 02/01/2023] Open
Abstract
People use language to shape each other's behavior in highly flexible ways. Effects of language are often assumed to be "high-level" in that, whereas language clearly influences reasoning, decision making, and memory, it does not influence low-level visual processes. Here, we test the prediction that words are able to provide top-down guidance at the very earliest stages of visual processing by acting as powerful categorical cues. We investigated whether visual processing of images of familiar animals and artifacts was enhanced after hearing their name (e.g., "dog") compared with hearing an equally familiar and unambiguous nonverbal sound (e.g., a dog bark) in 14 English monolingual speakers. Because the relationship between words and their referents is categorical, we expected words to deploy more effective categorical templates, allowing for more rapid visual recognition. By recording EEGs, we were able to determine whether this label advantage stemmed from changes to early visual processing or later semantic decision processes. The results showed that hearing a word affected early visual processes and that this modulation was specific to the named category. An analysis of ERPs showed that the P1 was larger when people were cued by labels compared with equally informative nonverbal cues-an enhancement occurring within 100 ms of image onset, which also predicted behavioral responses occurring almost 500 ms later. Hearing labels modulated the P1 such that it distinguished between target and nontarget images, showing that words rapidly guide early visual processing.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bastien Boutonnet
- Leiden Institute for Brain and Cognition, University of Leiden, NL-2300 RA Leiden, The Netherlands, and
| | - Gary Lupyan
- Department of Psychology, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, Wisconsin 53706
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15
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Fruchter J, Linzen T, Westerlund M, Marantz A. Lexical Preactivation in Basic Linguistic Phrases. J Cogn Neurosci 2015; 27:1912-35. [PMID: 25961637 DOI: 10.1162/jocn_a_00822] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/04/2022]
Abstract
Many previous studies have shown that predictable words are read faster and lead to reduced neural activation, consistent with a model of reading in which words are activated in advance of being encountered. The nature of such preactivation, however, has typically been studied indirectly through its subsequent effect on word recognition. Here, we use magnetoencephalography to study the dynamics of prediction within serially presented adjective-noun phrases, beginning at the point at which the predictive information is first available to the reader. Using corpus transitional probability to estimate the predictability of a noun, we found an increase in activity in the left middle temporal gyrus in response to the presentation of highly predictive adjectives (i.e., adjectives that license a strong noun prediction). Moreover, we found that adjective predictivity and expected noun frequency interacted, such that the response to the highly predictive adjectives (e.g., stainless) was modulated by the frequency of the expected noun (steel). These results likely reflect preactivation of nouns in highly predictive contexts. The fact that the preactivation process was modulated by the frequency of the predicted item is argued to provide support for a frequency-sensitive lexicon.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | - Alec Marantz
- New York University.,New York University Abu Dhabi
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16
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Francken JC, Meijs EL, Ridderinkhof OM, Hagoort P, de Lange FP, van Gaal S. Manipulating word awareness dissociates feed-forward from feedback models of language-perception interactions. Neurosci Conscious 2015; 2015:niv003. [PMID: 30135740 PMCID: PMC6089086 DOI: 10.1093/nc/niv003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/14/2015] [Revised: 04/20/2015] [Accepted: 05/19/2015] [Indexed: 11/14/2022] Open
Abstract
Previous studies suggest that linguistic material can modulate visual perception, but it is unclear at which level of processing these interactions occur. Here we aim to dissociate between two competing models of language-perception interactions: a feed-forward and a feedback model. We capitalized on the fact that the models make different predictions on the role of feedback. We presented unmasked (aware) or masked (unaware) words implying motion (e.g. "rise," "fall"), directly preceding an upward or downward visual motion stimulus. Crucially, masking leaves intact feed-forward information processing from low- to high-level regions, whereas it abolishes subsequent feedback. Under this condition, participants remained faster and more accurate when the direction implied by the motion word was congruent with the direction of the visual motion stimulus. This suggests that language-perception interactions are driven by the feed-forward convergence of linguistic and perceptual information at higher-level conceptual and decision stages.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jolien C. Francken
- Donders Institute for Brain, Cognition and Behavior, Radboud University Nijmegen, PO Box 9101, 6500 HB Nijmegen, Netherlands
| | - Erik L. Meijs
- Donders Institute for Brain, Cognition and Behavior, Radboud University Nijmegen, PO Box 9101, 6500 HB Nijmegen, Netherlands
| | - Odile M. Ridderinkhof
- Department of Psychology, University of Amsterdam, Weesperplein 4, 1018 XA Amsterdam, Netherlands
| | - Peter Hagoort
- Donders Institute for Brain, Cognition and Behavior, Radboud University Nijmegen, PO Box 9101, 6500 HB Nijmegen, Netherlands
- Max Planck Institute for Psycholinguistics, Wundtlaan 1, 6525 XD Nijmegen, Netherlands
| | - Floris P. de Lange
- Donders Institute for Brain, Cognition and Behavior, Radboud University Nijmegen, PO Box 9101, 6500 HB Nijmegen, Netherlands
| | - Simon van Gaal
- Donders Institute for Brain, Cognition and Behavior, Radboud University Nijmegen, PO Box 9101, 6500 HB Nijmegen, Netherlands
- Department of Psychology, University of Amsterdam, Weesperplein 4, 1018 XA Amsterdam, Netherlands
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