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Chang CHC, Nastase SA, Zadbood A, Hasson U. How a speaker herds the audience: multibrain neural convergence over time during naturalistic storytelling. Soc Cogn Affect Neurosci 2024; 19:nsae059. [PMID: 39223692 PMCID: PMC11421471 DOI: 10.1093/scan/nsae059] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/28/2024] [Revised: 06/25/2024] [Accepted: 08/31/2024] [Indexed: 09/04/2024] Open
Abstract
Storytelling-an ancient way for humans to share individual experiences with others-has been found to induce neural alignment among listeners. In exploring the dynamic fluctuations in listener-listener (LL) coupling throughout stories, we uncover a significant correlation between LL coupling and lagged speaker-listener (lag-SL) coupling over time. Using the analogy of neural pattern (dis)similarity as distances between participants, we term this phenomenon the "herding effect." Like a shepherd guiding a group of sheep, the more closely listeners mirror the speaker's preceding brain activity patterns (higher lag-SL similarity), the more tightly they cluster (higher LL similarity). This herding effect is particularly pronounced in brain regions where neural alignment among listeners tracks with moment-by-moment behavioral ratings of narrative content engagement. By integrating LL and SL neural coupling, this study reveals a dynamic, multibrain functional network between the speaker and the audience, with the unfolding narrative content playing a mediating role in network configuration.
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Affiliation(s)
- Claire H C Chang
- Princeton Neuroscience Institute, Princeton University, Princeton, NJ 08540, United States
- Graduate Institute of Mind, Brain and Consciousness, Taipei Medical University, New Taipei City 235, Taiwan
| | - Samuel A Nastase
- Princeton Neuroscience Institute, Princeton University, Princeton, NJ 08540, United States
| | - Asieh Zadbood
- Department of Psychology, Columbia University, New York, NY 10027, United States
| | - Uri Hasson
- Princeton Neuroscience Institute, Princeton University, Princeton, NJ 08540, United States
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2
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Ryu H, Kim MJ. Heroes and villains: opposing narrative roles engage neural synchronization in the inferior frontal gyrus. Soc Cogn Affect Neurosci 2024; 19:nsae049. [PMID: 38988184 PMCID: PMC11297537 DOI: 10.1093/scan/nsae049] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/06/2024] [Revised: 05/02/2024] [Accepted: 07/11/2024] [Indexed: 07/12/2024] Open
Abstract
Neuroscientific studies have highlighted the role of the default mode network (DMN) in processing narrative information. Here, we examined whether the neural synchronization of the DMN tracked the appearances of protagonists and antagonists when viewing highly engaging, socially rich audiovisual narratives. Using inter-subject correlation analysis on two independent, publicly available movie-watching fMRI datasets, we computed whole-brain neural synchronization during the appearance of the protagonists and antagonists. Results showed that the inferior frontal gyrus (IFG) had higher ISC values during the appearance of the protagonists than the antagonists. Importantly, these findings were generalized in both datasets. We discuss the results in the context of information integration and emotional empathy, which are relevant to functions of the IFG. Our study presents generalizable evidence that the IFG show distinctive synchronization patterns due to differences in narrative roles.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hayoung Ryu
- Department of Psychology, Sungkyunkwan University, Seoul 03063, South Korea
- Center for Neuroscience Imaging Research, Institute for Basic Science, Suwon 16419, South Korea
| | - M Justin Kim
- Department of Psychology, Sungkyunkwan University, Seoul 03063, South Korea
- Center for Neuroscience Imaging Research, Institute for Basic Science, Suwon 16419, South Korea
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3
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Hinzen W, Palaniyappan L. The 'L-factor': Language as a transdiagnostic dimension in psychopathology. Prog Neuropsychopharmacol Biol Psychiatry 2024; 131:110952. [PMID: 38280712 DOI: 10.1016/j.pnpbp.2024.110952] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/25/2023] [Revised: 12/20/2023] [Accepted: 01/23/2024] [Indexed: 01/29/2024]
Abstract
Thoughts and moods constituting our mental life incessantly change. When the steady flow of this dynamics diverges in clinical directions, the possible pathways involved are captured through discrete diagnostic labels. Yet a single vulnerable neurocognitive system may be causally involved in psychopathological deviations transdiagnostically. We argue that language viewed as integrating cortical functions is the best current candidate, whose forms of breakdown along its different dimensions are then manifest as symptoms - from prosodic abnormalities and rumination in depression to distortions of speech perception in verbal hallucinations, distortions of meaning and content in delusions, or disorganized speech in formal thought disorder. Spontaneous connected speech provides continuous objective readouts generating a highly accessible bio-behavioral marker with the potential of revolutionizing neuropsychological measurement. This argument turns language into a transdiagnostic 'L-factor' providing an analytical and mechanistic substrate for previously proposed latent general factors of psychopathology ('p-factor') and cognitive functioning ('c-factor'). Together with immense practical opportunities afforded by rapidly advancing natural language processing (NLP) technologies and abundantly available data, this suggests a new era of translational clinical psychiatry, in which both psychopathology and language may be rethought together.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wolfram Hinzen
- Department of Translation & Language Sciences, Universitat Pompeu Fabra, Barcelona, Spain; Institut Català de Recerca i Estudis Avançats (ICREA), Barcelona, Spain.
| | - Lena Palaniyappan
- Douglas Mental Health University Institute, Department of Psychiatry, McGill University, Montreal H4H1R3, Quebec, Canada; Robarts Research Institute & Lawson Health Research Institute, London, ON, Canada
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4
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Chang CHC, Nastase SA, Hasson U. How a speaker herds the audience: Multi-brain neural convergence over time during naturalistic storytelling. BIORXIV : THE PREPRINT SERVER FOR BIOLOGY 2024:2023.10.10.561803. [PMID: 37873125 PMCID: PMC10592711 DOI: 10.1101/2023.10.10.561803] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/25/2023]
Abstract
Storytelling-an ancient way for humans to share individual experiences with others-has been found to induce neural synchronization among listeners. In our exploration of the dynamic fluctuations in listener-listener (LL) coupling throughout stories, we uncover a significant correlation between LL and lag-speaker-listener (lag-SL) couplings over time. Using the analogy of neural pattern (dis)similarity as distances between participants, we term this phenomenon the "herding effect": like a shepherd guiding a group of sheep, the more closely listeners follow the speaker's prior brain activity patterns (higher lag-SL similarity), the more tightly they cluster together (higher LL similarity). This herding effect is particularly pronounced in brain regions where neural synchronization among listeners tracks with behavioral ratings of narrative engagement, highlighting the mediating role of narrative content in the observed multi-brain neural coupling dynamics. By integrating LL and SL neural couplings, this study illustrates how unfolding stories shape a dynamic multi-brain functional network and how the configuration of this network may be associated with moment-by-moment efficacy of communication.
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Affiliation(s)
- Claire H. C. Chang
- Princeton Neuroscience Institute, Princeton University, Princeton, New Jersey, 08540, USA
- The Graduate Institute of Mind, Brain and Consciousness, Taipei Medical University, New Taipei City, 235, Taiwan
| | - Samuel A. Nastase
- Princeton Neuroscience Institute, Princeton University, Princeton, New Jersey, 08540, USA
| | - Uri Hasson
- Princeton Neuroscience Institute, Princeton University, Princeton, New Jersey, 08540, USA
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5
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Yates TS, Sherman BE, Yousif SR. More than a moment: What does it mean to call something an 'event'? Psychon Bull Rev 2023; 30:2067-2082. [PMID: 37407794 DOI: 10.3758/s13423-023-02311-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 05/14/2023] [Indexed: 07/07/2023]
Abstract
Experiences are stored in the mind as discrete mental units, or 'events,' which influence-and are influenced by-attention, learning, and memory. In this way, the notion of an 'event' is foundational to cognitive science. However, despite tremendous progress in understanding the behavioral and neural signatures of events, there is no agreed-upon definition of an event. Here, we discuss different theoretical frameworks of event perception and memory, noting what they can and cannot account for in the literature. We then highlight key aspects of events that we believe should be accounted for in theories of event processing--in particular, we argue that the structure and substance of events should be better reflected in our theories and paradigms. Finally, we discuss empirical gaps in the event cognition literature and what the future of event cognition research may look like.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tristan S Yates
- Department of Psychology, Yale University, New Haven, CT, USA.
| | - Brynn E Sherman
- Department of Psychology, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA, USA.
| | - Sami R Yousif
- Department of Psychology, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA, USA.
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6
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Morgenroth E, Vilaclara L, Muszynski M, Gaviria J, Vuilleumier P, Van De Ville D. Probing neurodynamics of experienced emotions-a Hitchhiker's guide to film fMRI. Soc Cogn Affect Neurosci 2023; 18:nsad063. [PMID: 37930850 PMCID: PMC10656947 DOI: 10.1093/scan/nsad063] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/16/2023] [Revised: 08/04/2023] [Accepted: 11/01/2023] [Indexed: 11/08/2023] Open
Abstract
Film functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) has gained tremendous popularity in many areas of neuroscience. However, affective neuroscience remains somewhat behind in embracing this approach, even though films lend themselves to study how brain function gives rise to complex, dynamic and multivariate emotions. Here, we discuss the unique capabilities of film fMRI for emotion research, while providing a general guide of conducting such research. We first give a brief overview of emotion theories as these inform important design choices. Next, we discuss films as experimental paradigms for emotion elicitation and address the process of annotating them. We then situate film fMRI in the context of other fMRI approaches, and present an overview of results from extant studies so far with regard to advantages of film fMRI. We also give an overview of state-of-the-art analysis techniques including methods that probe neurodynamics. Finally, we convey limitations of using film fMRI to study emotion. In sum, this review offers a practitioners' guide to the emerging field of film fMRI and underscores how it can advance affective neuroscience.
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Affiliation(s)
- Elenor Morgenroth
- Neuro-X Institute, École Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne, Geneva 1202, Switzerland
- Department of Radiology and Medical Informatics, University of Geneva, Geneva 1202, Switzerland
- Swiss Center for Affective Sciences, University of Geneva, Geneva 1202, Switzerland
| | - Laura Vilaclara
- Neuro-X Institute, École Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne, Geneva 1202, Switzerland
- Department of Radiology and Medical Informatics, University of Geneva, Geneva 1202, Switzerland
| | - Michal Muszynski
- Department of Basic Neurosciences, University of Geneva, Geneva 1202, Switzerland
| | - Julian Gaviria
- Swiss Center for Affective Sciences, University of Geneva, Geneva 1202, Switzerland
- Department of Basic Neurosciences, University of Geneva, Geneva 1202, Switzerland
- Department of Psychiatry, University of Geneva, Geneva 1202, Switzerland
| | - Patrik Vuilleumier
- Swiss Center for Affective Sciences, University of Geneva, Geneva 1202, Switzerland
- Department of Basic Neurosciences, University of Geneva, Geneva 1202, Switzerland
- CIBM Center for Biomedical Imaging, Geneva 1202, Switzerland
| | - Dimitri Van De Ville
- Neuro-X Institute, École Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne, Geneva 1202, Switzerland
- Department of Radiology and Medical Informatics, University of Geneva, Geneva 1202, Switzerland
- CIBM Center for Biomedical Imaging, Geneva 1202, Switzerland
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7
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Hahamy A, Dubossarsky H, Behrens TEJ. The human brain reactivates context-specific past information at event boundaries of naturalistic experiences. Nat Neurosci 2023; 26:1080-1089. [PMID: 37248340 PMCID: PMC7614642 DOI: 10.1038/s41593-023-01331-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/13/2022] [Accepted: 04/13/2023] [Indexed: 05/31/2023]
Abstract
Although we perceive the world in a continuous manner, our experience is partitioned into discrete events. However, to make sense of these events, they must be stitched together into an overarching narrative-a model of unfolding events. It has been proposed that such a stitching process happens in offline neural reactivations when rodents build models of spatial environments. Here we show that, while understanding a natural narrative, humans reactivate neural representations of past events. Similar to offline replay, these reactivations occur in the hippocampus and default mode network, where reactivations are selective to relevant past events. However, these reactivations occur, not during prolonged offline periods, but at the boundaries between ongoing narrative events. These results, replicated across two datasets, suggest reactivations as a candidate mechanism for binding temporally distant information into a coherent understanding of ongoing experience.
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Affiliation(s)
- Avital Hahamy
- Wellcome Trust Centre for Neuroimaging, UCL Queen Square Institute of Neurology, University College London, London, UK.
| | - Haim Dubossarsky
- School of Electronic Engineering and Computer Science, Queen Mary University of London, London, UK
- Language Technology Laboratory, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, UK
| | - Timothy E J Behrens
- Wellcome Trust Centre for Neuroimaging, UCL Queen Square Institute of Neurology, University College London, London, UK
- Wellcome Centre for Integrative Neuroimaging, University of Oxford, John Radcliffe Hospital, Oxford, UK
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8
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Information flow across the cortical timescale hierarchy during narrative construction. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2022; 119:e2209307119. [PMID: 36508677 PMCID: PMC9907070 DOI: 10.1073/pnas.2209307119] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/15/2022] Open
Abstract
When listening to spoken narratives, we must integrate information over multiple, concurrent timescales, building up from words to sentences to paragraphs to a coherent narrative. Recent evidence suggests that the brain relies on a chain of hierarchically organized areas with increasing temporal receptive windows to process naturalistic narratives. We hypothesized that the structure of this cortical processing hierarchy should result in an observable sequence of response lags between networks comprising the hierarchy during narrative comprehension. This study uses functional MRI to estimate the response lags between functional networks during narrative comprehension. We use intersubject cross-correlation analysis to capture network connectivity driven by the shared stimulus. We found a fixed temporal sequence of response lags-on the scale of several seconds-starting in early auditory areas, followed by language areas, the attention network, and lastly the default mode network. This gradient is consistent across eight distinct stories but absent in data acquired during rest or using a scrambled story stimulus, supporting our hypothesis that narrative construction gives rise to internetwork lags. Finally, we build a simple computational model for the neural dynamics underlying the construction of nested narrative features. Our simulations illustrate how the gradual accumulation of information within the boundaries of nested linguistic events, accompanied by increased activity at each level of the processing hierarchy, can give rise to the observed lag gradient.
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9
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Castrellon JJ, Hakimi S, Parelman JM, Yin L, Law JR, Skene JAG, Ball DA, Malekpour A, Beskind DH, Vidmar N, Pearson JM, Carter RM, Skene JHP. Neural Support for Contributions of Utility and Narrative Processing of Evidence in Juror Decision Making. J Neurosci 2022; 42:7624-7633. [PMID: 36658459 PMCID: PMC9546442 DOI: 10.1523/jneurosci.2434-21.2022] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/28/2021] [Revised: 07/27/2022] [Accepted: 08/03/2022] [Indexed: 02/02/2023] Open
Abstract
Efforts to explain complex human decisions have focused on competing theories emphasizing utility and narrative mechanisms. These are difficult to distinguish using behavior alone. Both narrative and utility theories have been proposed to explain juror decisions, which are among the most consequential complex decisions made in a modern society. Here, we asked jury-eligible male and female subjects to rate the strength of a series of criminal cases while recording the resulting patterns of brain activation. We compared patterns of brain activation associated with evidence accumulation to patterns of brain activation derived from a large neuroimaging database to look for signatures of the cognitive processes associated with different models of juror decision-making. Evidence accumulation correlated with multiple narrative processes, including reading and recall. Of the cognitive processes traditionally viewed as components of utility, activation patterns associated with uncertainty, but not value, were more active with stronger evidence. Independent of utility and narrative, activations linked to reasoning and relational logic also correlated with increasing evidence. Hierarchical modeling of cognitive processes associated with evidence accumulation supported a more prominent role for narrative in weighing evidence in complex decisions. However, utility processes were also associated with evidence accumulation. These complementary findings support an emerging view that integrates utility and narrative processes in complex decisions.SIGNIFICANCE STATEMENT The last decade has seen a sharply increased interest in narrative as a central cognitive process in human decision-making and as an important factor in the evolution of human societies. However, the roles of narrative versus utility models of decision-making remain hotly debated. While available models frequently produce similar behavioral predictions, they rely on different cognitive processes and so their roles can be separated using the right neural tests. Here, we use brain imaging during mock juror decisions to show that cognitive processes associated with narrative, and to a lesser extent utility, were engaged while subjects evaluated evidence. These results are consistent with interactions between narrative and utility processes during complex decision-making.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jaime J Castrellon
- Department of Psychology and Neuroscience, Duke University, Durham, North Carolina 27708
- Center for Cognitive Neuroscience, Duke University, Durham, North Carolina 27708
| | - Shabnam Hakimi
- Center for Cognitive Neuroscience, Duke University, Durham, North Carolina 27708
- Institute of Cognitive Science, University of Colorado, Boulder, Colorado 80309
| | - Jacob M Parelman
- Institute of Cognitive Science, University of Colorado, Boulder, Colorado 80309
- Annenberg School for Communication, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania 19104
| | - Lun Yin
- Center for Cognitive Neuroscience, Duke University, Durham, North Carolina 27708
| | - Jonathan R Law
- Department of Psychology and Neuroscience, Duke University, Durham, North Carolina 27708
- Center for Cognitive Neuroscience, Duke University, Durham, North Carolina 27708
| | - Jesse A G Skene
- Department of Psychology and Neuroscience, Duke University, Durham, North Carolina 27708
- Center for Cognitive Neuroscience, Duke University, Durham, North Carolina 27708
| | - David A Ball
- Malekpour & Ball Consulting (JuryWatch, Inc.), Durham, North Carolina 27705
| | - Artemis Malekpour
- Malekpour & Ball Consulting (JuryWatch, Inc.), Durham, North Carolina 27705
| | | | - Neil Vidmar
- School of Law, Duke University, Durham, North Carolina 27708
| | - John M Pearson
- Department of Psychology and Neuroscience, Duke University, Durham, North Carolina 27708
- Center for Cognitive Neuroscience, Duke University, Durham, North Carolina 27708
- Department of Biostatistics and Bioinformatics, Duke University, Durham, North Carolina 27708
- Department of Neurobiology, Duke University, Durham, North Carolina 27710
| | - R McKell Carter
- Institute of Cognitive Science, University of Colorado, Boulder, Colorado 80309
- Department of Psychology and Neuroscience, University of Colorado, Boulder, Colorado 80309
- Electrical, Computer, and Energy Engineering, University of Colorado, Boulder, Colorado 80309
| | - J H Pate Skene
- Institute of Cognitive Science, University of Colorado, Boulder, Colorado 80309
- Department of Neurobiology, Duke University, Durham, North Carolina 27710
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10
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Russo AG, De Martino M, Elia A, Di Salle F, Esposito F. Negative correlation between word-level surprisal and intersubject neural synchronization during narrative listening. Cortex 2022; 155:132-149. [DOI: 10.1016/j.cortex.2022.07.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/21/2021] [Revised: 02/10/2022] [Accepted: 07/06/2022] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
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11
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Lee H, Chen J. Predicting memory from the network structure of naturalistic events. Nat Commun 2022; 13:4235. [PMID: 35869083 PMCID: PMC9307577 DOI: 10.1038/s41467-022-31965-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/30/2021] [Accepted: 06/07/2022] [Indexed: 11/09/2022] Open
Abstract
When we remember events, we often do not only recall individual events, but also the connections between them. However, extant research has focused on how humans segment and remember discrete events from continuous input, with far less attention given to how the structure of connections between events impacts memory. Here we conduct a functional magnetic resonance imaging study in which participants watch and recall a series of realistic audiovisual narratives. By transforming narratives into networks of events, we demonstrate that more central events-those with stronger semantic or causal connections to other events-are better remembered. During encoding, central events evoke larger hippocampal event boundary responses associated with memory formation. During recall, high centrality is associated with stronger activation in cortical areas involved in episodic recollection, and more similar neural representations across individuals. Together, these results suggest that when humans encode and retrieve complex real-world experiences, the reliability and accessibility of memory representations is shaped by their location within a network of events.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hongmi Lee
- Department of Psychological and Brain Sciences, Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, 21218, MD, USA.
| | - Janice Chen
- Department of Psychological and Brain Sciences, Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, 21218, MD, USA
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12
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Grall C, Finn ES. Leveraging the power of media to drive cognition: a media-informed approach to naturalistic neuroscience. Soc Cogn Affect Neurosci 2022; 17:598-608. [PMID: 35257180 PMCID: PMC9164202 DOI: 10.1093/scan/nsac019] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/05/2021] [Revised: 02/01/2022] [Accepted: 03/07/2022] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
So-called 'naturalistic' stimuli have risen in popularity in cognitive, social and affective neuroscience over the last 15 years. However, a critical property of these stimuli is frequently overlooked: Media-like film, television, books and podcasts-are 'fundamentally not natural'. They are deliberately crafted products meant to elicit particular human thought, emotion and behavior. Here, we argue for a more informed approach to adopting media stimuli in experimental paradigms. We discuss the pitfalls of combining stimuli that are designed for research with those that are designed for other purposes (e.g. entertainment) under the umbrella term of 'naturalistic' and present strategies to improve rigor in the stimulus selection process. We assert that experiencing media should be considered a task akin to any other experimental task(s) and explain how this shift in perspective will compel more nuanced and generalizable research using these stimuli. Throughout, we offer theoretical and practical knowledge from multidisciplinary media research to raise the standard for the treatment of media stimuli in neuroscience research.
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Affiliation(s)
- Clare Grall
- Department of Psychological and Brain Sciences, Dartmouth College, Hanover, NH 03755, USA
| | - Emily S Finn
- Department of Psychological and Brain Sciences, Dartmouth College, Hanover, NH 03755, USA
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13
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Tibon R, Geerligs L, Campbell K. Bridging the big (data) gap: levels of control in small- and large-scale cognitive neuroscience research. Trends Neurosci 2022; 45:507-516. [DOI: 10.1016/j.tins.2022.03.011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/02/2021] [Revised: 03/11/2022] [Accepted: 03/29/2022] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
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14
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Lu Q, Hasson U, Norman KA. A neural network model of when to retrieve and encode episodic memories. eLife 2022; 11:e74445. [PMID: 35142289 PMCID: PMC9000961 DOI: 10.7554/elife.74445] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/04/2021] [Accepted: 02/09/2022] [Indexed: 11/23/2022] Open
Abstract
Recent human behavioral and neuroimaging results suggest that people are selective in when they encode and retrieve episodic memories. To explain these findings, we trained a memory-augmented neural network to use its episodic memory to support prediction of upcoming states in an environment where past situations sometimes reoccur. We found that the network learned to retrieve selectively as a function of several factors, including its uncertainty about the upcoming state. Additionally, we found that selectively encoding episodic memories at the end of an event (but not mid-event) led to better subsequent prediction performance. In all of these cases, the benefits of selective retrieval and encoding can be explained in terms of reducing the risk of retrieving irrelevant memories. Overall, these modeling results provide a resource-rational account of why episodic retrieval and encoding should be selective and lead to several testable predictions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Qihong Lu
- Department of Psychology, Princeton UniversityPrincetonUnited States
- Princeton Neuroscience Institute, Princeton UniversityPrincetonUnited States
| | - Uri Hasson
- Department of Psychology, Princeton UniversityPrincetonUnited States
- Princeton Neuroscience Institute, Princeton UniversityPrincetonUnited States
| | - Kenneth A Norman
- Department of Psychology, Princeton UniversityPrincetonUnited States
- Princeton Neuroscience Institute, Princeton UniversityPrincetonUnited States
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15
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Schmitt LM, Erb J, Tune S, Rysop AU, Hartwigsen G, Obleser J. Predicting speech from a cortical hierarchy of event-based time scales. SCIENCE ADVANCES 2021. [PMID: 34860554 DOI: 10.1101/2020.12.19.423616] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/05/2023]
Abstract
How do predictions in the brain incorporate the temporal unfolding of context in our natural environment? We here provide evidence for a neural coding scheme that sparsely updates contextual representations at the boundary of events. This yields a hierarchical, multilayered organization of predictive language comprehension. Training artificial neural networks to predict the next word in a story at five stacked time scales and then using model-based functional magnetic resonance imaging, we observe an event-based “surprisal hierarchy” evolving along a temporoparietal pathway. Along this hierarchy, surprisal at any given time scale gated bottom-up and top-down connectivity to neighboring time scales. In contrast, surprisal derived from continuously updated context influenced temporoparietal activity only at short time scales. Representing context in the form of increasingly coarse events constitutes a network architecture for making predictions that is both computationally efficient and contextually diverse.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lea-Maria Schmitt
- Department of Psychology, University of Lübeck, Ratzeburger Allee 160, 23562 Lübeck, Germany
- Center of Brain, Behavior and Metabolism, University of Lübeck, Ratzeburger Allee 160, 23562 Lübeck, Germany
| | - Julia Erb
- Department of Psychology, University of Lübeck, Ratzeburger Allee 160, 23562 Lübeck, Germany
- Center of Brain, Behavior and Metabolism, University of Lübeck, Ratzeburger Allee 160, 23562 Lübeck, Germany
| | - Sarah Tune
- Department of Psychology, University of Lübeck, Ratzeburger Allee 160, 23562 Lübeck, Germany
- Center of Brain, Behavior and Metabolism, University of Lübeck, Ratzeburger Allee 160, 23562 Lübeck, Germany
| | - Anna U Rysop
- Lise Meitner Research Group Cognition and Plasticity, Max Planck Institute for Human Cognitive and Brain Sciences, Stephanstraße 1 A, 04103 Leipzig, Germany
| | - Gesa Hartwigsen
- Lise Meitner Research Group Cognition and Plasticity, Max Planck Institute for Human Cognitive and Brain Sciences, Stephanstraße 1 A, 04103 Leipzig, Germany
| | - Jonas Obleser
- Department of Psychology, University of Lübeck, Ratzeburger Allee 160, 23562 Lübeck, Germany
- Center of Brain, Behavior and Metabolism, University of Lübeck, Ratzeburger Allee 160, 23562 Lübeck, Germany
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16
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Schmitt LM, Erb J, Tune S, Rysop AU, Hartwigsen G, Obleser J. Predicting speech from a cortical hierarchy of event-based time scales. SCIENCE ADVANCES 2021; 7:eabi6070. [PMID: 34860554 PMCID: PMC8641937 DOI: 10.1126/sciadv.abi6070] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/19/2021] [Accepted: 10/15/2021] [Indexed: 05/30/2023]
Abstract
How do predictions in the brain incorporate the temporal unfolding of context in our natural environment? We here provide evidence for a neural coding scheme that sparsely updates contextual representations at the boundary of events. This yields a hierarchical, multilayered organization of predictive language comprehension. Training artificial neural networks to predict the next word in a story at five stacked time scales and then using model-based functional magnetic resonance imaging, we observe an event-based “surprisal hierarchy” evolving along a temporoparietal pathway. Along this hierarchy, surprisal at any given time scale gated bottom-up and top-down connectivity to neighboring time scales. In contrast, surprisal derived from continuously updated context influenced temporoparietal activity only at short time scales. Representing context in the form of increasingly coarse events constitutes a network architecture for making predictions that is both computationally efficient and contextually diverse.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lea-Maria Schmitt
- Department of Psychology, University of Lübeck, Ratzeburger Allee 160, 23562 Lübeck, Germany
- Center of Brain, Behavior and Metabolism, University of Lübeck, Ratzeburger Allee 160, 23562 Lübeck, Germany
| | - Julia Erb
- Department of Psychology, University of Lübeck, Ratzeburger Allee 160, 23562 Lübeck, Germany
- Center of Brain, Behavior and Metabolism, University of Lübeck, Ratzeburger Allee 160, 23562 Lübeck, Germany
| | - Sarah Tune
- Department of Psychology, University of Lübeck, Ratzeburger Allee 160, 23562 Lübeck, Germany
- Center of Brain, Behavior and Metabolism, University of Lübeck, Ratzeburger Allee 160, 23562 Lübeck, Germany
| | - Anna U. Rysop
- Lise Meitner Research Group Cognition and Plasticity, Max Planck Institute for Human Cognitive and Brain Sciences, Stephanstraße 1 A, 04103 Leipzig, Germany
| | - Gesa Hartwigsen
- Lise Meitner Research Group Cognition and Plasticity, Max Planck Institute for Human Cognitive and Brain Sciences, Stephanstraße 1 A, 04103 Leipzig, Germany
| | - Jonas Obleser
- Department of Psychology, University of Lübeck, Ratzeburger Allee 160, 23562 Lübeck, Germany
- Center of Brain, Behavior and Metabolism, University of Lübeck, Ratzeburger Allee 160, 23562 Lübeck, Germany
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17
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Ross TW, Easton A. The Hippocampal Horizon: Constructing and Segmenting Experience for Episodic Memory. Neurosci Biobehav Rev 2021; 132:181-196. [PMID: 34826509 DOI: 10.1016/j.neubiorev.2021.11.038] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/04/2021] [Revised: 11/19/2021] [Accepted: 11/22/2021] [Indexed: 12/29/2022]
Abstract
How do we recollect specific events that have occurred during continuous ongoing experience? There is converging evidence from non-human animals that spatially modulated cellular activity of the hippocampal formation supports the construction of ongoing events. On the other hand, recent human oriented event cognition models have outlined that our experience is segmented into discrete units, and that such segmentation can operate on shorter or longer timescales. Here, we describe a unification of how these dynamic physiological mechanisms of the hippocampus relate to ongoing externally and internally driven event segmentation, facilitating the demarcation of specific moments during experience. Our cross-species interdisciplinary approach offers a novel perspective in the way we construct and remember specific events, leading to the generation of many new hypotheses for future research.
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Affiliation(s)
- T W Ross
- Department of Psychology, Durham University, South Road, Durham, DH1 3LE, United Kingdom; Centre for Learning and Memory Processes, Durham University, United Kingdom.
| | - A Easton
- Department of Psychology, Durham University, South Road, Durham, DH1 3LE, United Kingdom; Centre for Learning and Memory Processes, Durham University, United Kingdom
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18
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Cohn-Sheehy BI, Delarazan AI, Reagh ZM, Crivelli-Decker JE, Kim K, Barnett AJ, Zacks JM, Ranganath C. The hippocampus constructs narrative memories across distant events. Curr Biol 2021; 31:4935-4945.e7. [PMID: 34592172 PMCID: PMC9373723 DOI: 10.1016/j.cub.2021.09.013] [Citation(s) in RCA: 34] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/18/2021] [Revised: 07/26/2021] [Accepted: 09/06/2021] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
Life's events are scattered throughout time, yet we often recall different events in the context of an integrated narrative. Prior research suggests that the hippocampus, which supports memory for past events, can support the integration of overlapping associations or separate events in memory. However, the conditions that lead to hippocampus-dependent memory integration are unclear. We used functional brain imaging to test whether the opportunity to form a larger narrative (narrative coherence) drives hippocampal memory integration. During encoding of fictional stories, patterns of hippocampal activity, including activity at boundaries between events, were more similar between distant events that formed one coherent narrative, compared with overlapping events taken from unrelated narratives. One day later, the hippocampus preferentially supported detailed recall of coherent narrative events, through reinstatement of hippocampal activity patterns from encoding. These findings demonstrate a key function of the hippocampus: the integration of events into a narrative structure for memory.
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Affiliation(s)
- Brendan I. Cohn-Sheehy
- M.D./Ph.D. Program, University of California, Davis, Sacramento, CA, USA,Neuroscience Graduate Group, University of California, Davis, Davis, CA, USA,Center for Neuroscience, University of California, Davis, Davis, CA, USA,Corresponding Author and Lead Contact: Brendan I. Cohn-Sheehy, Ph.D.
| | - Angelique I. Delarazan
- Department of Psychological and Brain Sciences, Washington University, 1 Brookings Drive, St. Louis, MO, USA
| | - Zachariah M. Reagh
- Department of Psychological and Brain Sciences, Washington University, 1 Brookings Drive, St. Louis, MO, USA
| | - Jordan E. Crivelli-Decker
- Center for Neuroscience, University of California, Davis, Davis, CA, USA,Department of Psychology, University of California, Davis, Davis, CA, USA
| | - Kamin Kim
- Center for Neuroscience, University of California, Davis, Davis, CA, USA
| | | | - Jeffrey M. Zacks
- Department of Psychological and Brain Sciences, Washington University, 1 Brookings Drive, St. Louis, MO, USA
| | - Charan Ranganath
- Neuroscience Graduate Group, University of California, Davis, Davis, CA, USA,Center for Neuroscience, University of California, Davis, Davis, CA, USA,Department of Psychology, University of California, Davis, Davis, CA, USA
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19
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Song H, Park BY, Park H, Shim WM. Cognitive and Neural State Dynamics of Narrative Comprehension. J Neurosci 2021; 41:8972-8990. [PMID: 34531284 PMCID: PMC8549535 DOI: 10.1523/jneurosci.0037-21.2021] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/07/2021] [Revised: 09/03/2021] [Accepted: 09/07/2021] [Indexed: 11/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Narrative comprehension involves a constant interplay of the accumulation of incoming events and their integration into a coherent structure. This study characterizes cognitive states during narrative comprehension and the network-level reconfiguration occurring dynamically in the functional brain. We presented movie clips of temporally scrambled sequences to human participants (male and female), eliciting fluctuations in the subjective feeling of comprehension. Comprehension occurred when processing events that were highly causally related to the previous events, suggesting that comprehension entails the integration of narratives into a causally coherent structure. The functional neuroimaging results demonstrated that the integrated and efficient brain state emerged during the moments of narrative integration with the increased level of activation and across-modular connections in the default mode network. Underlying brain states were synchronized across individuals when comprehending novel narratives, with increased occurrences of the default mode network state, integrated with sensory processing network, during narrative integration. A model based on time-resolved functional brain connectivity predicted changing cognitive states related to comprehension that are general across narratives. Together, these results support adaptive reconfiguration and interaction of the functional brain networks on causal integration of the narratives.SIGNIFICANCE STATEMENT The human brain can integrate temporally disconnected pieces of information into coherent narratives. However, the underlying cognitive and neural mechanisms of how the brain builds a narrative representation remain largely unknown. We showed that comprehension occurs as the causally related events are integrated to form a coherent situational model. Using fMRI, we revealed that the large-scale brain states and interaction between brain regions dynamically reconfigure as comprehension evolves, with the default mode network playing a central role during moments of narrative integration. Overall, the study demonstrates that narrative comprehension occurs through a dynamic process of information accumulation and causal integration, supported by the time-varying reconfiguration and brain network interaction.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hayoung Song
- Center for Neuroscience Imaging Research, IBS, Suwon, Korea, 16419
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Sungkyunkwan University, Suwon, Korea, 16419
- Department of Psychology, University of Chicago, Chicago, Illinois, 60637
| | - Bo-Yong Park
- Center for Neuroscience Imaging Research, IBS, Suwon, Korea, 16419
- Department of Electronic, Electrical and Computer Engineering, Sungkyunkwan University, Suwon, Korea, 16419
- McConnell Brain Imaging Centre, Montreal Neurological Institute and Hospital, McGill University, Montreal, Quebec Canada, H3A 2B4
- Department of Data Science, Inha University, Incheon, Korea, 22201
| | - Hyunjin Park
- Center for Neuroscience Imaging Research, IBS, Suwon, Korea, 16419
- School of Electronics and Electrical Engineering, Sungkyunkwan University, Suwon, Korea, 16419
| | - Won Mok Shim
- Center for Neuroscience Imaging Research, IBS, Suwon, Korea, 16419
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Sungkyunkwan University, Suwon, Korea, 16419
- Department of Intelligent Precision Healthcare Convergence, Sungkyunkwan University, Suwon, Korea, 16419
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20
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Nastase SA, Liu YF, Hillman H, Zadbood A, Hasenfratz L, Keshavarzian N, Chen J, Honey CJ, Yeshurun Y, Regev M, Nguyen M, Chang CHC, Baldassano C, Lositsky O, Simony E, Chow MA, Leong YC, Brooks PP, Micciche E, Choe G, Goldstein A, Vanderwal T, Halchenko YO, Norman KA, Hasson U. The "Narratives" fMRI dataset for evaluating models of naturalistic language comprehension. Sci Data 2021; 8:250. [PMID: 34584100 PMCID: PMC8479122 DOI: 10.1038/s41597-021-01033-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/04/2021] [Accepted: 08/18/2021] [Indexed: 02/08/2023] Open
Abstract
The "Narratives" collection aggregates a variety of functional MRI datasets collected while human subjects listened to naturalistic spoken stories. The current release includes 345 subjects, 891 functional scans, and 27 diverse stories of varying duration totaling ~4.6 hours of unique stimuli (~43,000 words). This data collection is well-suited for naturalistic neuroimaging analysis, and is intended to serve as a benchmark for models of language and narrative comprehension. We provide standardized MRI data accompanied by rich metadata, preprocessed versions of the data ready for immediate use, and the spoken story stimuli with time-stamped phoneme- and word-level transcripts. All code and data are publicly available with full provenance in keeping with current best practices in transparent and reproducible neuroimaging.
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Affiliation(s)
- Samuel A Nastase
- Princeton Neuroscience Institute and Department of Psychology, Princeton University, Princeton, NJ, USA.
| | - Yun-Fei Liu
- Department of Psychological and Brain Sciences, Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, MD, USA
| | - Hanna Hillman
- Princeton Neuroscience Institute and Department of Psychology, Princeton University, Princeton, NJ, USA
| | - Asieh Zadbood
- Princeton Neuroscience Institute and Department of Psychology, Princeton University, Princeton, NJ, USA
| | - Liat Hasenfratz
- Princeton Neuroscience Institute and Department of Psychology, Princeton University, Princeton, NJ, USA
| | - Neggin Keshavarzian
- Princeton Neuroscience Institute and Department of Psychology, Princeton University, Princeton, NJ, USA
| | - Janice Chen
- Department of Psychological and Brain Sciences, Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, MD, USA
| | - Christopher J Honey
- Department of Psychological and Brain Sciences, Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, MD, USA
| | - Yaara Yeshurun
- School of Psychological Sciences, Tel Aviv University, Tel Aviv, Israel
| | - Mor Regev
- Montreal Neurological Institute, McGill University, Montreal, QC, Canada
| | - Mai Nguyen
- Princeton Neuroscience Institute and Department of Psychology, Princeton University, Princeton, NJ, USA
| | - Claire H C Chang
- Princeton Neuroscience Institute and Department of Psychology, Princeton University, Princeton, NJ, USA
| | | | - Olga Lositsky
- Department of Cognitive, Linguistic and Psychological Sciences, Brown University, Providence, RI, USA
| | - Erez Simony
- Faculty of Electrical Engineering, Holon Institute of Technology, Holon, Israel
- Department of Neurobiology, Weizmann Institute of Science, Rehovot, Israel
| | | | - Yuan Chang Leong
- Helen Wills Neuroscience Institute, University of California, Berkeley, CA, USA
| | - Paula P Brooks
- Princeton Neuroscience Institute and Department of Psychology, Princeton University, Princeton, NJ, USA
| | - Emily Micciche
- Peabody College, Vanderbilt University, Nashville, TN, USA
| | - Gina Choe
- Princeton Neuroscience Institute and Department of Psychology, Princeton University, Princeton, NJ, USA
| | - Ariel Goldstein
- Princeton Neuroscience Institute and Department of Psychology, Princeton University, Princeton, NJ, USA
| | - Tamara Vanderwal
- Department of Psychiatry, University of British Columbia, and BC Children's Hospital Research Institute, Vancouver, BC, Canada
| | - Yaroslav O Halchenko
- Department of Psychological and Brain Sciences and Department of Computer Science, Dartmouth College, Hanover, NH, USA
| | - Kenneth A Norman
- Princeton Neuroscience Institute and Department of Psychology, Princeton University, Princeton, NJ, USA
| | - Uri Hasson
- Princeton Neuroscience Institute and Department of Psychology, Princeton University, Princeton, NJ, USA
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21
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Song H, Finn ES, Rosenberg MD. Neural signatures of attentional engagement during narratives and its consequences for event memory. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2021; 118:e2021905118. [PMID: 34385312 PMCID: PMC8379980 DOI: 10.1073/pnas.2021905118] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
As we comprehend narratives, our attentional engagement fluctuates over time. Despite theoretical conceptions of narrative engagement as emotion-laden attention, little empirical work has characterized the cognitive and neural processes that comprise subjective engagement in naturalistic contexts or its consequences for memory. Here, we relate fluctuations in narrative engagement to patterns of brain coactivation and test whether neural signatures of engagement predict subsequent memory. In behavioral studies, participants continuously rated how engaged they were as they watched a television episode or listened to a story. Self-reported engagement was synchronized across individuals and driven by the emotional content of the narratives. In functional MRI datasets collected as different individuals watched the same show or listened to the same story, engagement drove neural synchrony, such that default mode network activity was more synchronized across individuals during more engaging moments of the narratives. Furthermore, models based on time-varying functional brain connectivity predicted evolving states of engagement across participants and independent datasets. The functional connections that predicted engagement overlapped with a validated neuromarker of sustained attention and predicted recall of narrative events. Together, our findings characterize the neural signatures of attentional engagement in naturalistic contexts and elucidate relationships among narrative engagement, sustained attention, and event memory.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hayoung Song
- Department of Psychology, University of Chicago, Chicago, IL 60637;
| | - Emily S Finn
- Department of Psychological and Brain Sciences, Dartmouth College, Hanover, NH 03755
| | - Monica D Rosenberg
- Department of Psychology, University of Chicago, Chicago, IL 60637;
- Neuroscience Institute, University of Chicago, Chicago, IL 60637
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22
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Tandoc MC, Bayda M, Poskanzer C, Cho E, Cox R, Stickgold R, Schapiro AC. Examining the effects of time of day and sleep on generalization. PLoS One 2021; 16:e0255423. [PMID: 34339459 PMCID: PMC8328323 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0255423] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/28/2021] [Accepted: 07/16/2021] [Indexed: 12/26/2022] Open
Abstract
Extracting shared structure across our experiences allows us to generalize our knowledge to novel contexts. How do different brain states influence this ability to generalize? Using a novel category learning paradigm, we assess the effect of both sleep and time of day on generalization that depends on the flexible integration of recent information. Counter to our expectations, we found no evidence that this form of generalization is better after a night of sleep relative to a day awake. Instead, we observed an effect of time of day, with better generalization in the morning than the evening. This effect also manifested as increased false memory for generalized information. In a nap experiment, we found that generalization did not benefit from having slept recently, suggesting a role for time of day apart from sleep. In follow-up experiments, we were unable to replicate the time of day effect for reasons that may relate to changes in category structure and task engagement. Despite this lack of consistency, we found a morning benefit for generalization when analyzing all the data from experiments with matched protocols (n = 136). We suggest that a state of lowered inhibition in the morning may facilitate spreading activation between otherwise separate memories, promoting this form of generalization.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marlie C. Tandoc
- Department of Psychology, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, United States of America
| | - Mollie Bayda
- Department of Psychiatry, Beth Israel Deaconess Medical Center / Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts, United States of America
- Department of Psychology, University of California-Los Angeles, Los Angeles, California, United States of America
| | - Craig Poskanzer
- Department of Psychiatry, Beth Israel Deaconess Medical Center / Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts, United States of America
- Department of Psychology and Neuroscience, Boston College, Chestnut Hill, Massachusetts, United States of America
| | - Eileen Cho
- Department of Psychiatry, Beth Israel Deaconess Medical Center / Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts, United States of America
| | - Roy Cox
- Department of Psychiatry, Beth Israel Deaconess Medical Center / Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts, United States of America
- Department of Sleep and Cognition, Netherlands Institute for Neuroscience, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Robert Stickgold
- Department of Psychiatry, Beth Israel Deaconess Medical Center / Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts, United States of America
| | - Anna C. Schapiro
- Department of Psychology, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, United States of America
- Department of Psychiatry, Beth Israel Deaconess Medical Center / Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts, United States of America
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