The incidence of false-positive cultures for Mycobacterium tuberculosis

Positive Mycobacterium tuberculosis Gastric Lavage Cultures from Asymptomatic Children With Normal Chest Radiography

Mycobacterium tuberculosis culture from gastric lavage from apparently healthy children following tuberculin skin test conversion, despite normal chest radiography (CR), is well known but is a contentious subject. A consensus statement regarding classification of childhood tuberculosis excluded this condition, stating that more data were needed. To assist in this discussion, we reviewed early publications that reported the occurrence of this phenomenon and early anatomical pathology studies that described changes that occur in children following tuberculosis infection. Pathology studies describe frequent cavitation in primary foci in children from whom positive M. tuberculosis cultures might easily arise. These foci were very small in some children who might have normal CR. Positive cultures might also arise from ulcerated mediastinal lymph nodes that are invisible on CR. Young children with recent infection very likely have active primary pulmonary tuberculosis.

False-Positive Mycobacterium tuberculosis Detection: Ways to Prevent Cross-Contamination

The gold standard method for diagnosis of tuberculosis is the isolation of Mycobacterium tuberculosis through culture, but there is a probability of cross-contamination in simultaneous cultures of samples causing false-positives. This can result in delayed treatment of the underlying disease and drug side effects. In this paper, we reviewed studies on falsepositive cultures of M. tuberculosis. Rate of occurrence, effective factors, and extent of false-positives were analyzed. Ways to identify and reduce the false-positives and management of them are critical for all laboratories. In most cases, falsepositive is occurring in cases with only one positive culture but negative direct smear. The three most crucial factors in this regard are inappropriate technician function, contamination of reagents, and aerosol production. Thus, to reduce false-positives, good laboratory practice, as well as use of whole-genome sequencing or genotyping of all positive culture samples with a robust, extra pure method and rapid response, are essential for minimizing the rate of false-positives. Indeed, molecular approaches and epidemiological surveillance can provide a valuable tool besides culture to identify possible false positives.

Laboratory Cross-Contamination of Mycobacterium tuberculosis: A Systematic Review and Meta-analysis

BACKGROUND

Microbiological cultures are the mainstay of the diagnosis of tuberculosis (TB). False-positive TB results lead to significant unnecessary therapeutic and economic burden and are frequently caused by laboratory cross-contamination. The aim of this meta-analysis was to quantify the prevalence of laboratory cross-contamination.

METHODS

Through a systematic review of five electronic databases, we identified studies reporting rates of laboratory cross-contamination, confirmed by molecular techniques in TB cultures. We evaluated the quality of the identified studies using the National Institute of Health (NIH) Quality Assessment Tool for Observational Cohort and Cross-Sectional Studies, and conducted a meta-analysis using standard methodology recommended by the Cochrane Collaboration.

RESULTS

Based on 31 eligible studies evaluating 29,839 TB cultures, we found that 2% (95% confidence intervals [CI] 1-2%) of all positive TB cultures represent false-positive results secondary to laboratory cross-contamination. More importantly, we evaluated the rate of laboratory cross-contamination in cases where a single-positive TB culture was available in addition to at least one negative TB culture, and we found a rate of 15% (95% CI 6-33%). Moreover, 9.2% (91/990) of all patients with a preliminary diagnosis of TB had false-positive results and received unnecessary and potentially harmful treatments.

CONCLUSIONS

Our results highlight a remarkably high prevalence of false-positive TB results as a result of laboratory cross-contamination, especially in single-positive TB cultures, leading to the administration of unnecessary, harmful treatments. The need for the adoption of strict technical standards for mycobacterial cultures cannot be overstated.

A case of Mycobacterium tuberculosis laboratory cross-contamination

SETTING

A laboratory cross-contamination event was suspected because Mycobacterium tuberculosis was unexpectedly detected at a high incidence in the cultures of several clinical specimens at the National Hospital Organization, Tokyo National Hospital, Japan.

OBJECTIVE

To describe a case of Mycobacterium tuberculosis laboratory cross-contamination.

DESIGN

We reviewed the medical records of 20 patients whose clinical specimens were suspected to have been contaminated by Mycobacterium tuberculosis. Variable number of tandem repeat analysis with 15 loci, the Japan Anti-Tuberculosis Association-12, and three additional hyper-variable loci, was performed to identify the cross-contamination event.

RESULTS

The clinical, laboratory, and variable number of tandem repeat data revealed that the cross-contamination had possibly originated from one strongly positive specimen, resulting in false-positive results in 11 other specimens, including a case treated with anti-tuberculosis drugs.

CONCLUSION

Clinical and laboratory data must be re-evaluated when cross-contamination is suspected and variable number of tandem repeat analysis should be used to confirm cross-contamination. Furthermore, original isolates should be stored appropriately, without sub-culturing and genotyping should be performed at the earliest possible for better utilization of variable number of tandem repeat for the identification of cross-contamination.

Official American Thoracic Society/Centers for Disease Control and Prevention/Infectious Diseases Society of America Clinical Practice Guidelines: Treatment of Drug-Susceptible Tuberculosis

The American Thoracic Society, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, and Infectious Diseases Society of America jointly sponsored the development of this guideline for the treatment of drug-susceptible tuberculosis, which is also endorsed by the European Respiratory Society and the US National Tuberculosis Controllers Association. Representatives from the American Academy of Pediatrics, the Canadian Thoracic Society, the International Union Against Tuberculosis and Lung Disease, and the World Health Organization also participated in the development of the guideline. This guideline provides recommendations on the clinical and public health management of tuberculosis in children and adults in settings in which mycobacterial cultures, molecular and phenotypic drug susceptibility tests, and radiographic studies, among other diagnostic tools, are available on a routine basis. For all recommendations, literature reviews were performed, followed by discussion by an expert committee according to the Grading of Recommendations, Assessment, Development and Evaluation methodology. Given the public health implications of prompt diagnosis and effective management of tuberculosis, empiric multidrug treatment is initiated in almost all situations in which active tuberculosis is suspected. Additional characteristics such as presence of comorbidities, severity of disease, and response to treatment influence management decisions. Specific recommendations on the use of case management strategies (including directly observed therapy), regimen and dosing selection in adults and children (daily vs intermittent), treatment of tuberculosis in the presence of HIV infection (duration of tuberculosis treatment and timing of initiation of antiretroviral therapy), as well as treatment of extrapulmonary disease (central nervous system, pericardial among other sites) are provided. The development of more potent and better-tolerated drug regimens, optimization of drug exposure for the component drugs, optimal management of tuberculosis in special populations, identification of accurate biomarkers of treatment effect, and the assessment of new strategies for implementing regimens in the field remain key priority areas for research. See the full-text online version of the document for detailed discussion of the management of tuberculosis and recommendations for practice.

A new diagnostic tool for rapid and accurate detection of Mycobacterium tuberculosis

Mycobacterium tuberculosis, acid fast bacilli from the family of Mycobacteriaceae, is the causative agent of most cases of tuberculosis. Tuberculosis, as a communicable disease, remains a serious public health threat, killing more than one million people globally every year. Primary diagnosis of tuberculosis bacilli (TB) relies mainly on microscopic detection of acid fast bacilli (AFB), but the method suffers from low sensitivity and the results largely depend on the technician’s skill. New diagnostic tools are necessary to be introduced for rapid and accurate detection of the bacilli in sputum samples. We, in collaboration with Anda Biologicals, have developed a new platform, named as “Patho-tb”, for rapid detection of AFB with high sensitivity and with low dependence on human skills. Evaluation of Patho-tb test performance was done in two settings: (1) primary field study conducted using 38 sputa from high TB prevalence area of Iran (Zabol city near to the Afghanistan border), and (2) main study conducted using 476 sputa from Tehran, capital of Iran. Patho-tb was applied for processed sputum samples in parallel with routine diagnostic methods (including AFB microscopy, culture and PCR). All test results were compared to final clinical diagnostic state of an individual and diagnostic sensitivity (DSe), specificity, positive predictive value, negative predictive value and accuracy of each test results were calculated using standard formulations. Analytical sensitivity and specificity of the Patho-tb test were also determined. Calculated values for five above mentioned parameters are as follows: for field study: AFB (DSe: 29.6, DSp: 81.8, PPV: 80, NPV: 23.1, AC: 44.7), Patho-tb (DSe: 63, DSp: 72.7, PPV: 85, NPV: 44.4, AC: 65.8), and for main study: AFB (DSe: 86.1, DSp: 99.4, PPV: 98.5, NPV: 93.9, AC: 95.2), Patho-tb (DSe: 97.4, DSp: 92.9, PPV: 86.5, NPV: 98.7, AC: 94.3). Reproducibility of Patho-tb test results were near to 100% (Cohen’s kappa value between 0.85 and 1). The detection limit of Patho-tb test with 100% positivity rate was 3 × 10³ cells/ml of sputum. In the field study, Patho-tb test was 33.4% more sensitive than AFB microscopy, while the improvement was only 11.3% during the main study. Patho-tb results are easy to interpret and the test can be merged with other screening tests, like AFB. Totally, Patho-tb test alone or in conjunction with AFB microscopy is a useful screening tool for TB detection especially in poor geographical lab conditions.

A comparison of tools used for tuberculosis diagnosis in resource-limited settings: a case study at Mubende referral hospital, Uganda

Background

This study compared TB diagnostic tools and estimated levels of misdiagnosis in a resource-limited setting. Furthermore, we estimated the diagnostic utility of three-TB-associated predictors in an algorithm with and without Direct Ziehl-Neelsen (DZM).

Materials and Methods

Data was obtained from a cross-sectional study in 2011 conducted at Mubende regional referral hospital in Uganda. An individual was included if they presented with a two weeks persistent cough and or lymphadenitis/abscess. 344 samples were analyzed on DZM in Mubende and compared to duplicates analyzed on direct fluorescent microscopy (DFM), growth on solid and liquid media at Makerere University. Clinical variables from a questionnaire and DZM were used to predict TB status in multivariable logistic and Cox proportional hazard models, while optimization and visualization was done with receiver operating characteristics curve and algorithm-charts in Stata, R and Lucid-Charts respectively.

Results

DZM had a sensitivity and specificity of 36.4% (95% CI = 24.9–49.1) and 97.1%(95% CI = 94.4–98.7) compared to DFM which had a sensitivity and specificity of 80.3%(95% CI = 68.7–89.1) and 97.1%(95% CI = 94.4–98.7) respectively. DZM false negative results were associated with patient’s HIV status, tobacco smoking and extra-pulmonary tuberculosis. One of the false negative cases was infected with multi drug resistant TB (MDR). The three-predictor screening algorithm with and without DZM classified 50% and 33% of the true cases respectively, while the adjusted algorithm with DZM classified 78% of the true cases.

Conclusion

The study supports the concern that using DZM alone risks missing majority of TB cases, in this case we found nearly 60%, of who one was an MDR case. Although adopting DFM would reduce this proportion to 19%, the use of a three-predictor screening algorithm together with DZM was almost as good as DFM alone. It’s utility is whoever subject to HIV screening all TB suspects.

Controversies and unresolved issues in tuberculosis prevention and control: a low-burden-country perspective

Despite declining incidence in most high-income countries, tuberculosis shows no signs of disappearing in the near future. Although surveillance data from most Western European countries show relatively stable declines in the rate of tuberculosis over the past several decades, some have reported either an increasing rate or a decelerating pace of reduction in recent years. The burden of disease now disproportionately affects high-risk groups such as migrants, homeless persons, and prisoners. In view of the concentration of cases in urban areas and high-risk deprived groups, interventions that may not be efficient when applied to the general population may be highly cost effective when targeted at high-risk groups. In this article, we examine some controversial elements of tuberculosis prevention and control in low-burden countries and recommend issues for further research. In particular, we assess current evidence on the duration of protection by BCG vaccine, the screening of migrants and hard-to-reach groups, and the use of preventive therapy for contacts of cases of infectious multidrug-resistant tuberculosis. This analysis is presented from the perspective of low-tuberculosis-burden, high-income countries attempting to eliminate tuberculosis.

Unauthorized horizontal spread in the laboratory environment: the tactics of Lula, a temperate lambdoid bacteriophage of Escherichia coli

We investigated the characteristics of a lambdoid prophage, nicknamed Lula, contaminating E. coli strains from several sources, that allowed it to spread horizontally in the laboratory environment. We found that new Lula infections are inconspicuous; at the same time, Lula lysogens carry unusually high titers of the phage in their cultures, making them extremely infectious. In addition, Lula prophage interferes with P1 phage development and induces its own lytic development in response to P1 infection, turning P1 transduction into an efficient vehicle of Lula spread. Thus, using Lula prophage as a model, we reveal the following principles of survival and reproduction in the laboratory environment: 1) stealth (via laboratory material commensality), 2) stability (via resistance to specific protocols), 3) infectivity (via covert yet aggressive productivity and laboratory protocol hitchhiking). Lula, which turned out to be identical to bacteriophage phi80, also provides an insight into a surprising persistence of T1-like contamination in BAC libraries.

Role of subtyping in detecting Salmonella cross contamination in the laboratory

BACKGROUND

With the exception of M. tuberculosis, little has been published on the problems of cross-contamination in bacteriology laboratories. We performed a retrospective analysis of subtyping data from the National Salmonella Reference Laboratory (Ireland) from 2000-2007 to identify likely incidents of laboratory cross contamination.

METHODS

Serotyping and antimicrobial susceptibility testing was performed on all Salmonella isolates received in the NSRL. Phage typing was performed on all S. Typhimurium and S. Enteritidis isolates while multi-locus variance analysis (MLVA) was performed on selected S. Typhimurium isolates. Pulsed field gel electrophoresis (PFGE) using the PulseNet standard protocol was performed on selected isolates of various serovars.

RESULTS

Twenty-three incidents involving fifty-six isolates were identified as likely to represent cross contamination. The probable sources of contamination identified were the laboratory positive control isolate (n = 13), other test isolates (n = 9) or proficiency test samples (n = 1).

CONCLUSION

The scale of laboratory cross-contamination in bacteriology is most likely under recognized. Testing laboratories should be aware of the potential for cross-contamination, regularly review protocols to minimize its occurrence and consider it as a possibility when unexpected results are obtained.

Evaluation of low-colony-number counts of Mycobacterium tuberculosis on solid media as a microbiological marker of cross-contamination

Low-colony-number counts on solid media are considered characteristic of cross-contamination, although they are normally observed in true-positive cultures from some groups of patients. The aim of this study was to evaluate low-yield growth cultures as a microbiological marker for cross-contamination. We evaluated 106 cultures with <15 colonies from 94 patients, and the proportions of false-positive cultures were 0.9% per sample and 1.1% per patient, which indicates that low-yield growth is not a reliable marker of cross-contamination.

Rapid detection of laboratory cross-contamination with Mycobacterium tuberculosis using multispacer sequence typing

BACKGROUND

The ability to culture Mycobacterium tuberculosis from clinical specimens serves as the gold standard for the diagnosis of tuberculosis. However, a number of false-positive diagnoses may be due to cross-contamination of such specimens. We herein investigate such episode of cross-contamination by using a technique known as multispacer sequence typing (MST). This technique was applied to six M. tuberculosis isolates prepared within the same laboratory over a two-week period of time.

RESULTS

MST analysis indicated a unique and common sequence profile between a strain isolated from a patient with proven pulmonary tuberculosis and a strain isolated from a patient diagnosed with lung carcinoma. Using this approach, we were able to provide a clear demonstration of laboratory cross-contamination within just four working days. Further epidemiological investigations revealed that the two isolates were processed for culture on the same day.

CONCLUSION

The application of MST has been demonstrated to serve as a rapid and efficient method to investigate cases of possible cross-contamination with M. tuberculosis.

Tuberculosis screening of travelers to higher-incidence countries: a cost-effectiveness analysis

Background

Travelers to countries with high tuberculosis incidence can acquire infection during travel. We sought to compare four screening interventions for travelers from low-incidence countries, who visit countries with varying tuberculosis incidence.

Methods

Decision analysis model: We considered hypothetical cohorts of 1,000 travelers, 21 years old, visiting Mexico, the Dominican Republic, or Haiti for three months. Travelers departed from and returned to the United States or Canada; they were born in the United States, Canada, or the destination countries. The time horizon was 20 years, with 3% annual discounting of future costs and outcomes. The analysis was conducted from the health care system perspective. Screening involved tuberculin skin testing (post-travel in three strategies, with baseline pre-travel tests in two), or chest radiography post-travel (one strategy). Returning travelers with tuberculin conversion (one strategy) or other evidence of latent tuberculosis (three strategies) were offered treatment. The main outcome was cost (in 2005 US dollars) per tuberculosis case prevented.

Results

For all travelers, a single post-trip tuberculin test was most cost-effective. The associated cost estimate per case prevented ranged from $21,406 for Haitian-born travelers to Haiti, to $161,196 for US-born travelers to Mexico. In all sensitivity analyses, the single post-trip tuberculin test remained most cost-effective. For US-born travelers to Haiti, this strategy was associated with cost savings for trips over 22 months. Screening was more cost-effective with increasing trip duration and infection risk, and less so with poorer treatment adherence.

Conclusion

A single post-trip tuberculin skin test was the most cost-effective strategy considered, for travelers from the United States or Canada. The analysis did not evaluate the use of interferon-gamma release assays, which would be most relevant for travelers who received BCG vaccination after infancy, as in many European countries. Screening decisions should reflect duration of travel, tuberculosis incidence, and commitment to treat latent infection.

Clinical and microbiological features of HIV-associated tuberculous meningitis in Vietnamese adults

Methods

The aim of this prospective, observational cohort study was to determine the clinical and microbiological features, outcome, and baseline variables predictive of death, in Vietnamese adults with HIV-associated tuberculous meningitis (TBM). 58 patients were admitted to the Hospital for Tropical Diseases in Ho Chi Minh City and underwent routine clinical and laboratory assessments. Treatment was with standard antituberculous therapy and adjunctive dexamethasone; antiretroviral therapy was not routinely available. Patients were followed up until the end of TB treatment or death.

Results

The median symptom duration was 11 days (range 2–90 days), 21.8% had a past history of TB, and 41.4% had severe (grade 3) TBM. The median CD4 count was 32 cells/mm³. CSF findings were as follows: median leucocyte count 438×10⁹cells/l (63% neutrophils), 69% smear positive and 87.9% culture positive. TB drug resistance rates were high (13% mono-resistance 32.6% poly-resistance 8.7% multidrug resistance). 17% patients developed further AIDS-defining illnesses. 67.2% died (median time to death 20 days). Three baseline variables were predictive of death by multivariate analysis: increased TBM grade [adjusted hazard ratio (AHR) 1.73, 95% CI 1.08–2.76, p = 0.02], lower serum sodium (AHR 0.93, 95% CI 0.89 to 0.98, p = 0.002) and decreased CSF lymphocyte percentage (AHR 0.98, 95% CI 0.97 to 0.99, p = 0.003).

Conclusions

HIV-associated TBM is devastating disease with a dismal prognosis. CSF findings included CSF neutrophil predominance, high rates of smear and culture positivity, and high rates of antituberculous drug resistance. Three baseline variables were independently associated with death: increased TBM grade; low serum sodium and decreased CSF lymphocyte percentage.

Investigation of suspected laboratory cross-contamination: interpretation of single smear-negative, positive cultures for Mycobacterium tuberculosis

Restriction fragment length polymorphism (RFLP) analysis can be used to assess genetic relatedness of Mycobacterium tuberculosis isolates. This study reports a collaborative investigation of false-positive cultures for M. tuberculosis, suspected when the DNA fingerprint from an index case matched an epidemiologically improbable source case. RFLP analysis matched fingerprints in ten of 16 cases of suspected laboratory contamination to four separate smear-positive sources that were processed on the same day in the same laboratory. All single smear-negative, positive cultures processed on the same day as smear-positive specimens should be reviewed on a case-by-case basis to identify possible false-positive cultures.

Infrequent MODS TB culture cross-contamination in a high-burden resource-poor setting

One obstacle to wider use of rapid liquid culture-based tuberculosis diagnostics such as the microscopic observation drug susceptibility (MODS) assay is concern about cross-contamination. We investigated the rate of laboratory cross-contamination in MODS, automated MBBacT, and Lowenstein-Jensen (LJ) cultures performed in parallel, through triangulation of microbiologic (reculturing stored samples), molecular (spoligotype/RFLP), and clinical epidemiologic data. At least 1 culture was positive for Mycobacterium tuberculosis for 362 (11%) of 3416 samples; 53 were regarded as potential cross-contamination suspects. Cross-contamination accounted for 17 false-positive cultures from 14 samples representing 0.41% (14/3416) and 0.17% (17/10248) of samples and cultures, respectively. Positive predictive values for MODS, MBBacT (bioMérieux, Durham, NC), and LJ were 99.1%, 98.7%, and 99.7%, and specificity was 99.9% for all 3. Low rates of cross-contamination are achievable in mycobacterial laboratories in resource-poor settings even when a large proportion of samples are infectious and highly sensitive liquid culture-based diagnostics such as MODS are used.

American Thoracic Society/Centers for Disease Control and Prevention/Infectious Diseases Society of America: Controlling Tuberculosis in the United States

During 1993-2003, incidence of tuberculosis (TB) in the United States decreased 44% and is now occurring at a historic low level (14,874 cases in 2003). The Advisory Council for the Elimination of Tuberculosis has called for a renewed commitment to eliminating TB in the United States, and the Institute of Medicine has published a detailed plan for achieving that goal. In this statement, the American Thoracic Society (ATS), Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), and the Infectious Diseases Society of America (IDSA) propose recommendations to improve the control and prevention of TB in the United States and to progress toward its elimination. This statement is one in a series issued periodically by the sponsoring organizations to guide the diagnosis, treatment, control, and prevention of TB. This statement supersedes the previous statement by ATS and CDC, which was also supported by IDSA and the American Academy of Pediatrics (AAP). This statement was drafted, after an evidence-based review of the subject, by a panel of representatives of the three sponsoring organizations. AAP, the National Tuberculosis Controllers Association, and the Canadian Thoracic Society were also represented on the panel. This statement integrates recent scientific advances with current epidemiologic data, other recent guidelines from this series, and other sources into a coherent and practical approach to the control of TB in the United States. Although drafted to apply to TB-control activities in the United States, this statement might be of use in other countries in which persons with TB generally have access to medical and public health services and resources necessary to make a precise diagnosis of the disease; achieve curative medical treatment; and otherwise provide substantial science-based protection of the population against TB. This statement is aimed at all persons who advocate, plan, and work at controlling and preventing TB in the United States, including persons who formulate public health policy and make decisions about allocation of resources for disease control and health maintenance and directors and staff members of state, county, and local public health agencies throughout the United States charged with control of TB. The audience also includes the full range of medical practitioners, organizations, and institutions involved in the health care of persons in the United States who are at risk for TB.

The use of variable-number tandem-repeat mycobacterial interspersed repetitive unit typing to identify laboratory cross-contamination with Mycobacterium tuberculosis

A retrospective study including 515 Mycobacterium tuberculosis isolates from 215 patients was conducted to investigate possible laboratory contamination with M. tuberculosis over a 1-year period in a university hospital. All cultures underwent variable-number tandem-repeat (VNTR) typing. Cultures suspected of being contaminated in the VNTR analysis and possible sources of contamination underwent mycobacterial interspersed repetitive unit (MIRU) typing further. Overall, 8 (3.7%) cases of 215 patients were considered possible false-positives. Five (2.3%) cultures might be contaminated during initial batching processing, and 1 (0.5%) and 4 (1.9%) cultures of them were further classified as presumed and possible cases, respectively, of cross-contamination on clinical grounds. Three (1.4%) cultures might be contaminated by cultures that had been processed in species identification procedures in the same laminar-flow hood. The 2-step strategy using VNTR and MIRU analyses in combination in this study appears to be a valuable means for the study of false-positive cultures.

Effects of genetic variability of Mycobacterium tuberculosis strains on the presentation of disease

The nature of the variability in the clinical and epidemiological consequences of Mycobacterium tuberculosis infection remains poorly understood. Environmental and host factors that contribute to the outcome of infection and disease presentation are well recognised, but the role of bacterial factors has been more elusive. The rapid increase in the understanding of the molecular basis of M tuberculosis over the past decades has revived research into its pathogenesis. DNA fingerprinting techniques have been used to distinguish between strains of M tuberculosis, and efforts to characterise the strains present within populations have led to increased understanding of their global distribution. This research has shown that in certain areas a small number of strains are causing a disproportionate number of cases of the disease. The sequencing of the complete genome of M tuberculosis has accelerated the development of molecular techniques to differentiate strains according to their genetic polymorphisms. Investigation into the reasons why some strains are predominant by genetic strain-typing techniques may clarify which bacterial factors contribute to disease. This knowledge has the potential to influence control and prevention strategies for tuberculosis in the future. However, there are still limitations in these techniques and their results. This review discusses molecular epidemiology and genetic studies, and their contribution to the understanding of the links between genotypic and phenotypic characteristics of M tuberculosis strains.

Tuberculosis: medical management update

Tuberculosis (TB) is an infectious chronic disease. After decades of steadily declining prevalence, the disease has reemerged in the last 5 years. Symptoms of TB are mild and not specific and can be classified as either systemic or localized to target organs. Microscopic examination of the sputum remains an inexpensive and rapid way to identify highly infectious patients. Four different antimicrobial agents-rifampin, ethambutol, pirazinamide, and isoniazid-form the basis of currently recommended antituberculosis therapy. Tuberculosis could be an occupational risk for health care workers. Dentists must be involved in the health promotion and early detection of TB.

Recurrent tuberculosis in the United States and Canada: relapse or reinfection?

Recurrence of active tuberculosis after treatment can be due to relapse of infection with the same strain or reinfection with a new strain of Mycobacterium tuberculosis. The proportion of recurrent tuberculosis cases caused by reinfection has varied widely in previous studies. We evaluated cases of recurrent tuberculosis in two prospective clinical trials: a randomized study of two regimens for the last 4 months of treatment (n = 1,075) and a study of a twice-weekly rifabutin-containing regimen for human immunodeficiency virus-infected tuberculosis (n = 169). Isolates at diagnosis and from positive cultures after treatment completion underwent genotyping using IS6110 (with secondary genotyping for isolates with less than six copies of IS6110). Of 85 patients having a positive culture after completing treatment, 6 (7.1%) were classified as false-positive cultures by a review committee blinded to treatment assignment. Of the remaining 75 cases with recurrent tuberculosis and genotyping data available, 72 (96%; 95% confidence interval, 88.8-99.2%) paired isolates had the same genotype; only 3 (4%; 95% confidence interval, 0.8-11.2%) had a different genotype and were categorized as reinfection. We conclude that recurrent tuberculosis in the United States and Canada, countries with low rates of tuberculosis, is rarely due to reinfection with a new strain of M. tuberculosis.

Investigation of Laboratory cross-contamination of Mycobacterium tuberculosis cultures

Many clinicians and laboratory personnel are unaware that a culture positive for Mycobacterium tuberculosis may represent contamination. Laboratory cross-contamination with the M. tuberculosis laboratory control strain (H37Ra) occurs infrequently and therefore demands heightened awareness and recognition. We report 3 occurrences of laboratory cross-contamination from the same laboratory. These occurrences illustrate the importance of interpreting laboratory results in conjunction with the patient's clinical presentation. Failure to recognize laboratory cross-contamination with M. tuberculosis leads to both erroneous administration of unnecessary medications and expenditure of resources required to conduct contact investigations.

6,6'-Dimycoloyl trehalose from a rapidly growing Mycobacterium: an alternative antigen for tuberculosis serodiagnosis

Mycobacterial O-acyltrehaloses have been described as highly specific and sensitive reagents for tuberculosis immunodiagnosis. An O-acyltrehalose-containing lipid fraction from the rapidly growing Mycobacterium fortuitum was found to include additional antigens, which presented high cross-reactivity with sera from tuberculosis-infected patients. Based on a combination of selective chemical degradations, thin-layer-chromatography analyses and (1)H-nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy, the antigenic by-product was identified as 6,6'-dimycoloyl trehalose, the so-called cord factor. The lipid was purified and tested in ELISA for pulmonary tuberculosis serodiagnosis. Sensitivity and specificity of the test were found to be 66.6-74.1% and 95.2-99.0%, respectively, showing a slightly higher efficiency as compared to the ELISA performed using 6,6'-dimycoloyl trehalose from Mycobacterium tuberculosis. No cross-reactivity was found with sera from Nocardia-infected individuals.

Use of PCR and culture for detection of Mycobacterium tuberculosis in specimens from patients with normal and slow responses to chemotherapy

In order to examine the utility of PCR as a tool for monitoring the response to short-course chemotherapy, clinical data from 162 tuberculosis patients with drug-susceptible cultures and variables associated with a slow response to antibiotic treatment were retrospectively evaluated. Initial samples were positive by smear in 106 patients and by PCR in 156 patients. A rapid response to therapy was found in 132 patients who had both smear and culture-negative results after 2 months of treatment. After 6 months of therapy, 5 other patients in this group were considered clinically cured but 20 patients had positive cultures. For these 20 patients with a slow response to therapy, treatment was continued for an additional 2-4 months and 15 patients were subsequently cured. However, of all the cured patients 7 had PCR-positive samples at the end of treatment. When these cases were correlated with therapeutic outcome, it was found that 3 of the PCR-positive but none of the PCR-negative patients had a clinical relapse during subsequent follow-up. We conclude that culture and PCR tests are highly informative when used to control the rate of response to therapy. A post-treatment positive result on PCR may be associated with a poor clinical outcome or may predict the likelihood of clinical relapse. Culture and PCR tests, as opposed to smear results, may be the key parameters for individually guiding the duration of treatment in TB patients with a poor response to standard therapy.

Laboratory cross-contamination of Mycobacterium tuberculosis: an investigation and analysis of causes and consequences

BACKGROUND

The misdiagnosis of Mycobacterium tuberculosis infection has many ramifications. These include medical and psychological implications for patients and their families and financial and public health implications for health-care institutions. Microbiology laboratory procedures should minimize the possibility of laboratory cross-contamination of specimens and maximize the ability to recognize a cluster of false-positive cultures. Newer molecular typing methods provide rapid, accurate and effective means of identifying false-positive M. tuberculosis cultures.

AIMS

To investigate a cluster of patients with positive M. tuberculosis cultures that were processed in the mycobacteriology laboratory on the same day.

METHODS

Five patients' medical records and radiology results were reviewed to determine whether the cases were epidemiologically linked and whether there was clinical suspicion of tuberculosis. Restriction fragment length polymorphism (DNA fingerprinting) was performed using repetitive elements IS6110 and pTBN12. Laboratory processing procedures were analysed.

RESULTS

On the basis of DNA fingerprinting using IS6110, the isolates from all five patients were identical. Molecular typing using pTBN12 was performed on four of the five isolates. All four had identical patterns. There was no epidemiological link between the patients. At least three (and probably four) of the five patients were misdiagnosed with tuberculosis.

CONCLUSION

Microbiology laboratories should ensure that appropriate methodologies are in place to avoid cross-contamination of specimens. Clinicians need to critically interpret any positive laboratory result, especially in an unlikely clinical setting.

False-positive mycobacterium tuberculosis cultures in 44 laboratories in The Netherlands (1993 to 2000): incidence, risk factors, and consequences

False-positive Mycobacterium tuberculosis cultures are a benchmark for the quality of laboratory processes and patient care. We studied the incidence of false-positive cultures, risk factors, and consequences for patients during the period from 1993 to 2000 in 44 peripheral laboratories in The Netherlands. The national reference laboratory tested 8,889 M. tuberculosis isolates submitted by these laboratories. By definition, a culture was false positive (i) if the DNA fingerprint of the isolate was identical to that of an isolate from another patient processed within 7 days in the same laboratory, (ii) if the isolate was taken from a patient without clinical signs of tuberculosis, and/or (iii) if the false-positive test result was confirmed by the peripheral laboratory and/or the public health tuberculosis officer. We identified 213 false-positive cultures (2.4%). The overall incidence of false-positive cultures decreased over the years, from 3.9% in 1993 to 1.1% in 2000. Laboratories with false-positive cultures more often processed less than 3,000 samples per year (P < 0.05). Among 110 patients for whom a false-positive culture was identified from 1995 to 1999, we found that for 36% of the patients an official tuberculosis notification had been provided to the appropriate public health services, 31% of the patients were treated, 14% of the patients were hospitalized, and a contact investigation had been initiated for 16% of the patients. The application of DNA fingerprinting to identify false-positive M. tuberculosis cultures and the provision of feedback to peripheral laboratories are useful instruments to improve the quality of laboratory processes and the quality of medical care.

DNA fngerprinting of Mycobacterium tuberculosis: lessons learned and implications for the future

DNA fingerprinting of Mycobacterium tuberculosis--a relatively new laboratory technique--offers promise as a powerful aid in the prevention and control of tuberculosis (TB). Established in 1996 by the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), the National Tuberculosis Genotyping and Surveillance Network was a 5-year prospective, population-based study of DNA fingerprinting conducted from 1996 to 2000. The data from this study suggest multiple molecular epidemiologic and program management uses for DNA fingerprinting in TB public health practice. From these data, we also gain a clearer understanding of the overall diversity of M. tuberculosis strains as well as the presence of endemic strains in the United States. We summarize the key findings and the impact that DNA fingerprinting may have on future approaches to TB control. Although challenges and limitations to the use of DNA fingerprinting exist, the widespread implementation of the technique into routine TB prevention and control practices appears scientifically justified.

Estimation of the rate of unrecognized cross-contamination with mycobacterium tuberculosis in London microbiology laboratories

Isolates from patients with confirmed tuberculosis from London were collected over 2.5 years between 1995 and 1997. Restriction fragment length polymorphism (RFLP) analysis was performed by the international standard technique as part of a multicenter epidemiological study. A total of 2,779 samples representing 2,500 individual patients from 56 laboratories were examined. Analysis of these samples revealed a laboratory cross-contamination rate of between 0.54%, when only presumed cases of cross-contamination were considered, and 0.93%, when presumed and possible cases were counted. Previous studies suggest an extremely wide range of laboratory cross-contamination rates of between 0.1 and 65%. These data indicate that laboratory cross-contamination has not been a common problem in routine practice in the London area, but in several incidents patients did receive full courses of therapy that were probably unnecessary.

A prospective, multicenter study of laboratory cross-contamination of Mycobacterium tuberculosis cultures

A prospective study of false-positive cultures of Mycobacterium tuberculosis that resulted from laboratory cross-contamination was conducted at three laboratories in California. Laboratory cross-contamination accounted for 2% of the positive cultures. Cross-contamination should be a concern when an isolate matches the genotype of another sample processed during the same period.

Rifapentine and isoniazid once a week versus rifampicin and isoniazid twice a week for treatment of drug-susceptible pulmonary tuberculosis in HIV-negative patients: a randomised clinical trial

BACKGROUND

Rifapentine has a long half-life in serum, which suggests a possible treatment once a week for tuberculosis. We aimed to compare rifapentine and isoniazid once a week with rifampicin and isoniazid twice a week.

METHODS

We did a randomised, multicentre, open-label trial in the USA and Canada of HIV-negative people with drug-susceptible pulmonary tuberculosis who had completed 2 months of a 6-month treatment regimen. We randomly allocated patients directly observed treatment with either 600 mg rifapentine plus 900 mg isoniazid once a week or 600 mg rifampicin plus 900 mg isoniazid twice a week. Primary outcome was failure/relapse. Analysis was by intention to treat.

FINDINGS

1004 patients were enrolled (502 per treatment group). 928 successfully completed treatment, and 803 completed the 2-year 4-month study. Crude rates of failure/relapse were 46/502 (9.2%) in those on rifapentine once a week, and 28/502 (5.6%) in those given rifampicin twice a week (relative risk 1.64, 95% CI 1.04-2.58, p=0.04). By proportional hazards regression, five characteristics were independently associated with increased risk of failure/relapse: sputum culture positive at 2 months (hazard ratio 2.8, 95% CI 1.7-4.6); cavitation on chest radiography (3.0, 1.6-5.9); being underweight (3.0, 1.8-4.9); bilateral pulmonary involvement (1.8, 1.0-3.1); and being a non-Hispanic white person (1.8, 1.1-3.0). Adjustment for imbalances in 2-month culture and cavitation diminished the association of treatment group with outcome (1.34; 0.83-2.18; p=0.23). Of participants without cavitation, rates of failure/relapse were 6/210 (2.9%) in the once a week group and 6/241 (2.5%) in the twice a week group (relative risk 1.15; 95% CI 0.38-3.50; p=0.81). Rates of adverse events and death were similar in the two treatment groups.

INTERPRETATION

Rifapentine once a week is safe and effective for treatment of pulmonary tuberculosis in HIV-negative people without cavitation on chest radiography. Clinical, radiographic, and microbiological data help to identify patients with tuberculosis who are at increased risk of failure or relapse when treated with either regimen.

Simple and rapid differentiation of Mycobacterium tuberculosis H37Ra from M. tuberculosis clinical isolates through two cytochemical tests using neutral red and nile blue stains

The attenuated Mycobacterium tuberculosis strain H37Ra is one of the most commonly used controls for M. tuberculosis identification in the clinical laboratory and is a source of false-positive results for M. tuberculosis as a consequence of cross-contamination. Therefore, the ability to discriminate between H37Ra and real clinical isolates has important public health implications. To date, differentiation of H37Ra from M. tuberculosis clinical isolates is possible only by IS6110 genotyping and spoligotyping. In the 1950s, some authors reported that the virulent strain H37Rv and M. tuberculosis clinical isolates were able to fix basic dyes in their anionic forms, while H37Ra was not. We have studied the different techniques described for M. tuberculosis cytochemical staining and have chosen the best of these, introducing certain modifications in order to increase their discriminative power and reproducibility. We describe cytochemical staining of M. tuberculosis cells with neutral red and Nile blue, which differentiates H37Ra from virulent strains. This method could be used as an easy laboratory tool for distinguishing between H37Ra and real M. tuberculosis clinical isolates.

[Recent transmission of tuberculosis in an area with low incidence: epidemiological and molecular study]

BACKGROUND

Few reports have analysed the transmission of tuberculosis in rural areas with a low incidence of disease.

PATIENTS AND METHOD

A population-based molecular epidemiological study of patients with tuberculosis, diagnosed by culture, was conducted in Segovia (Spain) between 1995 and 1999. Clinical, demographic and epidemiological data were reviewed. Patients whose clinical isolates of Mycobacterium tuberculosis had identical restriction-fragment-length-polymorphism (RFLP) patterns with IS6110 and spoligotyping were included in clusters.

RESULTS

Of 96 patients with positive-culture for M. tuberculosis complex, 6 were considered as false-positive results. The mean incidence rate was 12.3 cases/100,000 inhabitants. Median age was 50.3 (SD: 23.1), 14% was HIV-infected, and 92% of them were living in urban areas (p < 0.01). There were no cases of primary resistance to isoniazid. DNA fingerprint was performed in 87 samples. We identified 8 clusters including 24 patients (27.7%). Clusters had between 2 and 6 cases. Patients aged < 35 years (OR = 3.1; CI 95%, 1.0-9.6) and with lung involvement (OR = 6.8; CI 95%, 1.3-46.4) were more represented in the clusters. Classical epidemiological investigation confirmed a recent transmission in 33% of clustered cases.

CONCLUSIONS

The use of both classical and molecular epidemiology reveals the existence of recent transmission cases of tuberculosis in an area with a low incidence of the disease.

Laboratory diagnosis of mycobacterial infections: new tools and lessons learned

Even in the 21st century, tuberculosis continues to be a problem. Although the number of cases continues gradually to decrease in the United States, cases get more difficult to treat, specifically those that are multiple-drug resistant. Infection of one-third of the world's population ensures that tuberculosis will not disappear in the near future. In light of this, it will be useful to know the goals for the health care system and how these goals may be accomplished. Laboratory testing in the mycobacteriology field is experiencing more changes today than ever before. Determining what assays will be most useful to the clinician is a challenge, and acceptance of the new technology by the medical community an even greater one. Clinicians must use the best available resources to determine the most appropriate care for their patients and work together with the laboratory to ensure that the communication channels are open. This review focuses on current state-of-the-art resources useful for accurate and rapid laboratory diagnosis of mycobacterial infections.

The effect of changes in laboratory practices on the rate of false-positive cultures for Mycobacterium tuberculosis

CONTEXT

False-positive cultures for Mycobacterium tuberculosis have been found in nearly all DNA fingerprinting studies, but the effectiveness of interventions to reduce cross-contamination has not been evaluated.

OBJECTIVE

To evaluate whether changes in laboratory policies and procedures reduced the rate of false-positive cultures.

DESIGN

Retrospective study of isolates with matching DNA fingerprints.

SETTING

A mycobacteriology laboratory serving an urban tuberculosis control program and public hospital system.

PATIENTS

All M tuberculosis isolates processed from July 1994 to December 1999.

METHODS

Isolates were fingerprinted using IS6110; pTBN12 was used to fingerprint isolates having fewer than 6 copies of IS6110. We further evaluated all patients having only one positive culture whose DNA fingerprint matched that of another isolate processed in the laboratory within 42 days.

INTERVENTIONS

We changed laboratory policy to reduce the number of smear-positive specimens processed and changed laboratory procedures to minimize the risk of cross-contamination during batch processing.

MAIN OUTCOME MEASURE

The rate of false-positive cultures.

RESULTS

Of 13 940 specimens processed during the study period, 630 (4.5%) from 184 patients and 48 laboratory proficiency specimens grew M tuberculosis. There were no cases (0/184) of probable or definite cross-contamination, compared with the 4% rate (8/199) identified in our previous study (P =.008). We also fingerprinted a convenience sample of isolates from other laboratories in Denver; 13.6% (3/22) of these were false-positive, a rate similar to the 11.9% rate (5/42) identified for other laboratories in our previous study (P =.84).

CONCLUSIONS

Laboratory cross-contamination decreased significantly after relatively simple, inexpensive changes in laboratory policies and practices. Cross-contamination continued to occur in other laboratories in Denver.

Secondary typing of Mycobacterium tuberculosis isolates with matching IS6110 fingerprints from different geographic regions of the United States

Fifty-nine isolates of Mycobacterium tuberculosis obtained from different states in the United States and representing 25 interstate clusters were investigated. These clusters were identified by computer-assisted analysis of DNA fingerprints submitted during 1996 and 1997 by different laboratories participating in the CDC National Genotyping and Surveillance Network. Isolates were fingerprinted with the IS6110 right-hand probe (IS6110-3'), the IS6110 left-hand probe (IS6110-5'), and the probe pTBN12, containing the polymorphic GC-rich sequence (PGRS). Spoligotyping based on the polymorphism in the 36-bp direct-repeat locus was also performed. As a control, 43 M. tuberculosis isolates in 17 clusters obtained from patients in Arkansas during the study period were analyzed. Of the 25 interstate clusters, 19 were confirmed as correctly clustered when all the isolates were analyzed on the same gel using the IS6110-3' probe. Of the 19 true IS6110-3' clusters, 10 (53%) were subdivided by one or more secondary typing methods. Clustering of the control group was virtually identical by all methods. Of the three different secondary typing methods, spoligotyping was the least discriminating. IS6110-5' fingerprinting was as discriminating as PGRS fingerprinting. The data indicate that the IS6110-5' probe not only is a useful secondary typing method but also probably would prove to be a more useful primary typing method for a genotyping network which involves isolates from different geographic regions.

Identification of a contaminating Mycobacterium tuberculosis strain with a transposition of an IS6110 insertion element resulting in an altered spoligotype

Molecular fingerprinting with the IS6110 insertion sequence is useful for tracking transmission of Mycobacterium tuberculosis within a population or confirming specimen contamination in the laboratory or through instrumentation. Secondary typing with other molecular methods yields additional information as to the relatedness of strains with similar IS6110 fingerprints. Isolated, relatively rare, random events within the M. tuberculosis genome alter molecular fingerprinting patterns with any of the methods; therefore, strains which are different by two or more typing methods are usually not considered to be closely related. In this report, we describe two strains of M. tuberculosis, obtained from the same bronchoscope 2 days apart, that demonstrated unique molecular fingerprinting patterns by two different typing methods. They were closely linked through the bronchoscope by a traditional epidemiologic investigation. Genetic analysis of the two strains revealed that a single event, the transposition of an IS6110 insertion sequence in one of the strains, accounted for both the differences in the IS6110 pattern and the apparent deletion of a spacer in the spoligotype. This finding shows that a single event can change the molecular fingerprint of a strain in two different molecular typing systems, and thus, molecular typing cannot be the only means used to track transmission of this organism through a population. Traditional epidemiologic techniques are a necessary complement to molecular fingerprinting so that radical changes within the fingerprint pattern can be identified.

Exogenous reinfection with tuberculosis on a European island with a moderate incidence of disease

The frequency and determinants of exogenous reinfection and of endogenous reactivation of tuberculosis in patients previously treated are poorly understood. In Gran Canaria Island, Spain, between 1991 and 1996, 962 tuberculosis cases were confirmed by culture. Drug susceptibility testing was performed on available bacterial isolates and IS6110-based RFLP genotyping was carried out. Twenty-three patients (2.4%) had two positive cultures separated by at least 12 mo, 18 of whom had bacterial DNA available for genotypic analysis. The initial and final isolates from eight (44%) were different genotypes, indicating exogenous reinfection. Six of them were retreated after cure and two retreated after default. Six were HIV seronegative and two were HIV seropositive. Endogenous reactivation was seen in the remaining 10 patients of whom eight were retreated after default and two after cure. Three of the eight (38%) being retreated after default developed multidrug resistance. One genotype was responsible for a second episode of tuberculosis in five cases, three exogenous reinfections and two endogenous reactivations. In the context of a moderate incidence of tuberculosis, exogenous reinfection is an important cause of TB recurrence, even in HIV-seronegative patients.

Rapid identification of laboratory contamination with Mycobacterium tuberculosis using variable number tandem repeat analysis

Compared with solid media, broth-based mycobacterial culture systems have increased sensitivity but also have higher false-positive rates due to cross-contamination. Systematic strain typing is rarely undertaken because the techniques are technically demanding and the data are difficult to organize. Variable number tandem repeat (VNTR) analysis by PCR is rapid and reproducible. The digital profile is easily manipulated in a database. We undertook a retrospective study of Mycobacterium tuberculosis isolates collected over an 18-month period following the introduction of the BACTEC MGIT 960 system. VNTR allele profiles were determined with early positive broth cultures and entered into a database with the specimen processing date and other specimen data. We found 36 distinct VNTR profiles in cultures from 144 patients. Three common VNTR profiles accounted for 45% of true-positive cases. By combining VNTR results with specimen data, we identified nine cross-contamination incidents, six of which were previously unsuspected. These nine incidents resulted in 34 false-positive cultures for 29 patients. False-positive cultures were identified for three patients who had previously been culture positive for tuberculosis and were receiving treatment. Identification of cross-contamination incidents requires careful documentation of specimen data and good communication between clinical and laboratory staff. Automated broth culture systems should be supplemented with molecular analysis to identify cross-contamination events. VNTR analysis is reproducible and provides timely results when applied to early positive broth cultures. This method should ensure that patients are not placed on unnecessary tuberculosis therapy or that cases are not falsely identified as treatment failures. In addition, areas where existing procedures may be improved can be identified.

Review of false-positive cultures for Mycobacterium tuberculosis and recommendations for avoiding unnecessary treatment

We reviewed reports of false-positive cultures for Mycobacterium tuberculosis and here propose guidelines for detecting and managing patients with possible false-positive cultures. Mechanisms of false-positive cultures included contamination of clinical devices, clerical errors, and laboratory cross-contamination. False-positive cultures were identified in 13 (93%) of the 14 studies that evaluated > or = 100 patients; the median false-positive rate was 3.1% (interquartile range, 2.2%-10.5%). Of the 236 patients with false-positive cultures reported in sufficient detail, 158 (67%) were treated, some of whom had toxicity from therapy, as well as unnecessary hospitalizations, tests, and contact investigations. Having a single positive culture was a sensitive but nonspecific criterion for detecting false-positive cultures. False-positive cultures for M. tuberculosis are not rare but are infrequently recognized by laboratory and clinical personnel. Laboratories and tuberculosis control programs should develop procedures to identify patients having only 1 positive culture. Such patients should be further evaluated for the possibility of a false-positive culture.