QLT091001, a 9-cis-retinal analog, is well-tolerated by retinas of mice with impaired visual cycles

Morphological characterization of retinal development from birth to adulthood via retinal thickness assessment in mice: a systematic review

The morphology and thickness of the retinal layers are valuable biomarkers for retinal health and development. The retinal layers in mice are similar to those in humans; thus, a mouse is appropriate for studying the retina. The objectives of this systematic review were: (1) to describe normal retinal morphology quantitatively using retinal layer thickness measured from birth to age 6 months in healthy mice; and (2) to describe morphological changes in physiological retinal development over time using the longitudinal (in vivo) and cross-sectional (ex vivo) data from the included studies. A PubMed search was conducted for articles published from to 1980-2024 that included quantitative data. Prior to sexual maturity, an increase in the total retinal and inner plexiform layer thicknesses were observed, with a decrease in the inner nuclear layer thickness. After sexual maturity, an asymptotic decrease in thickness was observed up to age 6 months in all layers; during this period, no significant changes were observed in the outer nuclear layer or nerve fiber layer/ganglion cell layer complex. Potential sources of variability and inconsistency among the studies included differences in imaging modality, animal strain, measurement timing, and retinal segmentation/assignment techniques. These findings highlight the importance of including a control group in experimental designs and providing comparative data for further investigations.

Losing, preserving, and restoring vision from neurodegeneration in the eye

The retina is a part of the brain that sits at the back of the eye, looking out onto the world. The first neurons of the retina are the rod and cone photoreceptors, which convert changes in photon flux into electrical signals that are the basis of vision. Rods and cones are frequent targets of heritable neurodegenerative diseases that cause visual impairment, including blindness, in millions of people worldwide. This review summarizes the diverse genetic causes of inherited retinal degenerations (IRDs) and their convergence onto common pathogenic mechanisms of vision loss. Currently, there are few effective treatments for IRDs, but recent advances in disparate areas of biology and technology (e.g., genome editing, viral engineering, 3D organoids, optogenetics, semiconductor arrays) discussed here enable promising efforts to preserve and restore vision in IRD patients with implications for neurodegeneration in less approachable brain areas.

The Role of Vitamin A in Retinal Diseases

Vitamin A is an essential fat-soluble vitamin that occurs in various chemical forms. It is essential for several physiological processes. Either hyper- or hypovitaminosis can be harmful. One of the most important vitamin A functions is its involvement in visual phototransduction, where it serves as the crucial part of photopigment, the first molecule in the process of transforming photons of light into electrical signals. In this process, large quantities of vitamin A in the form of 11-cis-retinal are being isomerized to all-trans-retinal and then quickly recycled back to 11-cis-retinal. Complex machinery of transporters and enzymes is involved in this process (i.e., the visual cycle). Any fault in the machinery may not only reduce the efficiency of visual detection but also cause the accumulation of toxic chemicals in the retina. This review provides a comprehensive overview of diseases that are directly or indirectly connected with vitamin A pathways in the retina. It includes the pathophysiological background and clinical presentation of each disease and summarizes the already existing therapeutic and prospective interventions.

Retinal pigment epithelium 65 kDa protein (RPE65): An update

Vertebrate vision critically depends on an 11-cis-retinoid renewal system known as the visual cycle. At the heart of this metabolic pathway is an enzyme known as retinal pigment epithelium 65 kDa protein (RPE65), which catalyzes an unusual, possibly biochemically unique, reaction consisting of a coupled all-trans-retinyl ester hydrolysis and alkene geometric isomerization to produce 11-cis-retinol. Early work on this isomerohydrolase demonstrated its membership to the carotenoid cleavage dioxygenase superfamily and its essentiality for 11-cis-retinal production in the vertebrate retina. Three independent studies published in 2005 established RPE65 as the actual isomerohydrolase instead of a retinoid-binding protein as previously believed. Since the last devoted review of RPE65 enzymology appeared in this journal, major advances have been made in a number of areas including our understanding of the mechanistic details of RPE65 isomerohydrolase activity, its phylogenetic origins, the relationship of its membrane binding affinity to its catalytic activity, its role in visual chromophore production for rods and cones, its modulation by macromolecules and small molecules, and the involvement of RPE65 mutations in the development of retinal diseases. In this article, I will review these areas of progress with the goal of integrating results from the varied experimental approaches to provide a comprehensive picture of RPE65 biochemistry. Key outstanding questions that may prove to be fruitful future research pursuits will also be highlighted.

Theoretical Study of the Photoisomerization Mechanism of All-Trans-Retinyl Acetate

The compound 9-cis-retinyl acetate (9-cis-RAc) is a precursor to 9-cis-retinal, which has potential application in the treatment of some hereditary diseases of the retina. An attractive synthetic route to 9-cis-RAc is based on the photoisomerization reaction of the readily available all-trans-RAc. In the present study, we examine the mechanism of the photoisomerization reaction with the use of state-of-the-art electronic structure calculations for two polyenic model compounds: tEtEt-octatetraene and tEtEtEc-2,6-dimethyl-1,3,5,7,9-decapentaene. The occurrence of photoisomerization is attributed to a chain-kinking mechanism, whereby a series of S₁/S₀ conical intersections associated with kinking deformations at different positions along the polyenic chain mediate internal conversion to the S₀ state, and subsequent isomerization around one of the double bonds. Two other possible photoisomerization mechanisms are taken into account, but they are rejected as incompatible with simulation results and/or the available spectroscopic data.

Polyphenols and Visual Health: Potential Effects on Degenerative Retinal Diseases

Dietary polyphenols are a group of natural compounds that have been proposed to have beneficial effects on human health. They were first known for their antioxidant properties, but several studies over the years have shown that these compounds can exert protective effects against chronic diseases. Nonetheless, the mechanisms underlying these potential benefits are still uncertain and contradictory effects have been reported. In this review, we analyze the potential effects of polyphenol compounds on some visual diseases, with a special focus on retinal degenerative diseases. Current effective therapies for the treatment of such retinal diseases are lacking and new strategies need to be developed. For this reason, there is currently a renewed interest in finding novel ligands (or known ligands with previously unexpected features) that could bind to retinal photoreceptors and modulate their molecular properties. Some polyphenols, especially flavonoids (e.g., quercetin and tannic acid), could attenuate light-induced receptor damage and promote visual health benefits. Recent evidence suggests that certain flavonoids could help stabilize the correctly folded conformation of the visual photoreceptor protein rhodopsin and offset the deleterious effect of retinitis pigmentosa mutations. In this regard, certain polyphenols, like the flavonoids mentioned before, have been shown to improve the stability, expression, regeneration and folding of rhodopsin mutants in experimental in vitro studies. Moreover, these compounds appear to improve the integration of the receptor into the cell membrane while acting against oxidative stress at the same time. We anticipate that polyphenol compounds can be used to target visual photoreceptor proteins, such as rhodopsin, in a way that has only been recently proposed and that these can be used in novel approaches for the treatment of retinal degenerative diseases like retinitis pigmentosa; however, studies in this field are limited and further research is needed in order to properly characterize the effects of these compounds on retinal degenerative diseases through the proposed mechanisms.

Overview of all-trans-retinoic acid (ATRA) and its analogues: Structures, activities, and mechanisms in acute promyelocytic leukaemia

All-trans-retinoic acid (ATRA) is effective for preventing cancer and treating skin diseases and acute promyelocytic leukaemia (APL). These pharmacological effects of ATRA are mainly mediated by retinoid X receptors (RXRs) and retinoic acid receptors (RARs). This article provides a comprehensive overview of the clinical progress on and the molecular mechanisms of ATRA in the treatment of APL. ATRA can promote the transcriptional activation of differentiation-related genes and regulate autophagy by inhibiting mTOR, which results in anti-APL effects. In detail, the structures, pharmacological effects, and clinical studies of 68 types of ATRA analogues are described. These compounds have excellent antitumour therapeutic potential and could be used as lead compounds for further development and research.

Clinical Perspective: Treating RPE65-Associated Retinal Dystrophy

Until recently, there was no approved treatment for a retinal degenerative disease. Subretinal injection of a recombinant adeno-associated virus (AAV) delivering the normal copy of the human RPE65 cDNA led to reversal of blindness first in animal models and then in humans. This led to the first US Food and Drug Administration (FDA)-approved gene therapy product for a genetic disease, voretigene neparvovec-rzyl (Luxturna). Luxturna was then approved by the European Medicines Association and is now available in the US through Spark Therapeutics and worldwide through Novartis. Not only has treatment with Luxturna changed the lives of people previously destined to live a life of blindness, but it has fueled interest in developing additional gene therapy reagents targeting numerous other genetic forms of inherited retinal disease. This review describes many of the considerations for administration of Luxturna and describes how lessons from experience with Luxturna could lead to additional gene-based treatments of blindness.

Pathways and disease-causing alterations in visual chromophore production for vertebrate vision

All that we view of the world begins with an ultrafast cis to trans photoisomerization of the retinylidene chromophore associated with the visual pigments of rod and cone photoreceptors. The continual responsiveness of these photoreceptors is then sustained by regeneration processes that convert the trans-retinoid back to an 11-cis configuration. Recent biochemical and electrophysiological analyses of the retinal G-protein-coupled receptor (RGR) suggest that it could sustain the responsiveness of photoreceptor cells, particularly cones, even under bright light conditions. Thus, two mechanisms have evolved to accomplish the reisomerization: one involving the well-studied retinoid isomerase (RPE65) and a second photoisomerase reaction mediated by the RGR. Impairments to the pathways that transform all-trans-retinal back to 11-cis-retinal are associated with mild to severe forms of retinal dystrophy. Moreover, with age there also is a decline in the rate of chromophore regeneration. Both pharmacological and genetic approaches are being used to bypass visual cycle defects and consequently mitigate blinding diseases. Rapid progress in the use of genome editing also is paving the way for the treatment of disparate retinal diseases. In this review, we provide an update on visual cycle biochemistry and then discuss visual-cycle-related diseases and emerging therapeutics for these disorders. There is hope that these advances will be helpful in treating more complex diseases of the eye, including age-related macular degeneration (AMD).

Properties and Therapeutic Implications of an Enigmatic D477G RPE65 Variant Associated with Autosomal Dominant Retinitis Pigmentosa

RPE65 isomerase, expressed in the retinal pigmented epithelium (RPE), is an enzymatic component of the retinoid cycle, converting all-trans retinyl ester into 11-cis retinol, and it is essential for vision, because it replenishes the photon capturing 11-cis retinal. To date, almost 200 loss-of-function mutations have been identified within the RPE65 gene causing inherited retinal dystrophies, most notably Leber congenital amaurosis (LCA) and autosomal recessive retinitis pigmentosa (arRP), which are both severe and early onset disease entities. We previously reported a mutation, D477G, co-segregating with the disease in a late-onset form of autosomal dominant RP (adRP) with choroidal involvement; uniquely, it is the only RPE65 variant to be described with a dominant component. Families or individuals with this variant have been encountered in five countries, and a number of subsequent studies have been reported in which the molecular biological and physiological properties of the variant have been studied in further detail, including observations of possible novel functions in addition to reduced RPE65 enzymatic activity. With regard to the latter, a human phase 1b proof-of-concept study has recently been reported in which aspects of remaining vision were improved for up to one year in four of five patients with advanced disease receiving a single one-week oral dose of 9-cis retinaldehyde, which is the first report showing efficacy and safety of an oral therapy for a dominant form of RP. Here, we review data accrued from published studies investigating molecular mechanisms of this unique variant and include hitherto unpublished material on the clinical spectrum of disease encountered in patients with the D477G variant, which, in many cases bears striking similarities to choroideremia.

Vitamin A and its natural derivatives

Vitamin A and derivatives, the natural retinoids, underpin signaling pathways of cellular differentiation, and are key chromophores in vision. These functions depend on transfer across membranes, and carrier proteins to shuttle retinoids to specific cell compartments. Natural retinoids, ultimately derived from plant carotenoids by metabolism to all-trans retinol, are lipophilic and consist of a cyclohexenyl (β-ionone) moiety linked to a polyene chain. This structure constrains the orientation of retinoids within lipid membranes. Cis-trans isomerization at double bonds of the polyene chain and s-cis/s-trans rotational isomerization at single bonds define the functional dichotomy of retinoids (signaling/vision) and specificities of interactions with specific carrier proteins and receptors. Metabolism of all-trans retinol to 11-cis retinal, transfer to photoreceptors, and removal and recycling of all-trans retinal generated by photoreceptor irradiation, is the key process underlying vision. All-trans retinol transferred into cells is metabolized to all-trans retinoic acid and shuttled to the cell nucleus to regulate gene expression controlling organ, tissue and cell differentiation, and cellular homeostasis. Research methods need to address the potential of photoisomerization in vitro to confound research results, and data should be interpreted in the context of membrane-association properties of retinoids and physiological concentrations in vivo. Despite a century of research, there are many fundamental questions of retinoid cellular biochemistry and molecular biology still to be answered. Computational modeling techniques will have an important role for understanding the nuances of vitamin A signaling and function.

Long-Term Follow-Up of Retinal Degenerations Associated With LRAT Mutations and Their Comparability to Phenotypes Associated With RPE65 Mutations

Purpose

To investigate the natural history in patients with LRAT-associated retinal degenerations (RDs), in the advent of clinical trials testing treatment options.

Methods

A retrospective cohort of 13 patients with LRAT-RDs.

Results

Twelve patients from a genetic isolate carried a homozygous c.12del mutation. One unrelated patient carried a homozygous c.326G>T mutation. The mean follow-up time was 25.3 years (SD 15.2; range 4.8–53.5). The first symptom was nyctalopia (n = 11), central vision loss (n = 1), or light-gazing (n = 1), and was noticed in the first decade of life. Seven patients (54%) reached low vision (visual acuity < 20/67), four of whom reaching blindness (visual acuity < 20/400), respectively, at mean ages of 49.9 (SE 5.4) and 59.9 (SE 3.1) years. The fundus appearance was variable. Retinal white dots were seen in six patients (46%). Full-field electroretinograms (n = 11) were nondetectable (n = 2; ages 31–60), reduced in a nonspecified pattern (n = 2; ages 11–54), or showed rod–cone (n = 6; ages 38–48) or cone–rod (n = 1; age 29) dysfunction. Optical coherence tomography (n = 4) showed retinal thinning but relative preservation of the (para-)foveal outer retinal layers in the second (n = 1) and sixth decade of life (n = 2), and profound chorioretinal degeneration from the eighth decade of life (n = 1).

Conclusions

LRAT-associated phenotypes in this cohort were variable and unusual, but generally milder than those seen in RPE65-associated disease, and may be particularly amenable to treatment. The window of therapeutic opportunity can be extended in patients with a mild phenotype.

Translational Relevance

Knowledge of the natural history of LRAT-RDs is essential in determining the window of opportunity in ongoing and future clinical trials for novel therapeutic options.

Ligand Binding Mechanisms in Human Cone Visual Pigments

Vertebrate vision starts with light absorption by visual pigments in rod and cone photoreceptor cells of the retina. Rhodopsin, in rod cells, responds to dim light, whereas three types of cone opsins (red, green, and blue) function under bright light and mediate color vision. Cone opsins regenerate with retinal much faster than rhodopsin, but the molecular mechanism of regeneration is still unclear. Recent advances in the area pinpoint transient intermediate opsin conformations, and a possible secondary retinal-binding site, as determinant factors for regeneration. In this Review, we compile previous and recent findings to discuss possible mechanisms of ligand entry in cone opsins, involving a secondary binding site, which may have relevant functional and evolutionary implications.

Human Blue Cone Opsin Regeneration Involves Secondary Retinal Binding with Analog Specificity

Human color vision is mediated by the red, green, and blue cone visual pigments. Cone opsins are G-protein-coupled receptors consisting of an opsin apoprotein covalently linked to the 11-cis-retinal chromophore. All visual pigments share a common evolutionary origin, and red and green cone opsins exhibit a higher homology, whereas blue cone opsin shows more resemblance to the dim light receptor rhodopsin. Here we show that chromophore regeneration in photoactivated blue cone opsin exhibits intermediate transient conformations and a secondary retinoid binding event with slower binding kinetics. We also detected a fine-tuning of the conformational change in the photoactivated blue cone opsin binding site that alters the retinal isomer binding specificity. Furthermore, the molecular models of active and inactive blue cone opsins show specific molecular interactions in the retinal binding site that are not present in other opsins. These findings highlight the differential conformational versatility of human cone opsin pigments in the chromophore regeneration process, particularly compared to rhodopsin, and point to relevant functional, unexpected roles other than spectral tuning for the cone visual pigments.

Retinal-chitosan Conjugates Effectively Deliver Active Chromophores to Retinal Photoreceptor Cells in Blind Mice and Dogs

The retinoid (visual) cycle consists of a series of biochemical reactions needed to regenerate the visual chromophore 11-cis-retinal and sustain vision. Genetic or environmental factors affecting chromophore production can lead to blindness. Using animal models that mimic human retinal diseases, we previously demonstrated that mechanism-based pharmacological interventions can maintain vision in otherwise incurable genetic diseases of the retina. Here, we report that after 9-cis-retinal administration to lecithin:retinol acyltransferase-deficient (Lrat^-/- ) mice, the drug was rapidly absorbed and then cleared within 1 to 2 hours. However, when conjugated to form chitosan-9-cis-retinal, this prodrug was slowly absorbed from the gastrointestinal tract, resulting in sustainable plasma levels of 9-cis-retinol and recovery of visual function without causing elevated levels, as occurs with unconjugated drug treatment. Administration of chitosan-9-cis-retinal conjugate intravitreally in retinal pigment epithelium-specific 65 retinoid isomerase (RPE65)-deficient dogs improved photoreceptor function as assessed by electroretinography. Functional rescue was dose dependent and maintained for several weeks. Dosing via the gastrointestinal tract in canines was found ineffective, most likely due to peculiarities of vitamin A blood transport in canines. Use of the chitosan conjugate in combination with 11-cis-6-ring-retinal, a locked ring analog of 11-cis-retinal that selectively blocks rod opsin consumption of chromophore while largely sparing cone opsins, was found to prolong cone vision in Lrat^-/- mice. Development of such combination low-dose regimens to selectively prolong useful cone vision could not only expand retinal disease treatments to include Leber congenital amaurosis but also the age-related decline in human dark adaptation from progressive retinoid cycle deficiency.

Enhancing Understanding of the Visual Cycle by Applying CRISPR/Cas9 Gene Editing in Zebrafish

During the vertebrate visual cycle, all-trans-retinal is exported from photoreceptors to the adjacent RPE or Müller glia wherein 11-cis-retinal is regenerated. The 11-cis chromophore is returned to photoreceptors, forming light-sensitive visual pigments with opsin GPCRs. Dysfunction of this process perturbs phototransduction because functional visual pigment cannot be generated. Mutations in visual cycle genes can result in monogenic inherited forms of blindness. Though key enzymatic processes are well characterized, questions remain as to the physiological role of visual cycle proteins in different retinal cell types, functional domains of these proteins in retinoid biochemistry and in vivo pathogenesis of disease mutations. Significant progress is needed to develop effective and accessible treatments for inherited blindness arising from mutations in visual cycle genes. Here, we review opportunities to apply gene editing technology to two crucial visual cycle components, RPE65 and CRALBP. Expressed exclusively in the human RPE, RPE65 enzymatically converts retinyl esters into 11-cis retinal. CRALBP is an 11-cis-retinal binding protein expressed in human RPE and Muller glia. Loss-of-function mutations in either protein results in autosomal recessive forms of blindness. Modeling these human conditions using RPE65 or CRALBP murine knockout models have enhanced our understanding of their biochemical function, associated disease pathogenesis and development of therapeutics. However, rod-dominated murine retinae provide a challenge to assess cone function. The cone-rich zebrafish model is amenable to cost-effective maintenance of a variety of strains. Interestingly, gene duplication in zebrafish resulted in three Rpe65 and two Cralbp isoforms with differential temporal and spatial expression patterns. Functional investigations of zebrafish Rpe65 and Cralbp were restricted to gene knockdown with morpholino oligonucleotides. However, transient silencing, off-target effects and discrepancies between knockdown and knockout models, highlight a need for more comprehensive alternatives for functional genomics. CRISPR/Cas9 in zebrafish has emerged as a formidable technology enabling targeted gene knockout, knock-in, activation, or silencing to single base-pair resolution. Effective, targeted gene editing by CRISPR/Cas9 in zebrafish enables unprecedented opportunities to create genetic research models. This review will discuss existing knowledge gaps regarding RPE65 and CRALBP. We explore the benefits of CRISPR/Cas9 to establish innovative zebrafish models to enhance knowledge of the visual cycle.

Flavonoid allosteric modulation of mutated visual rhodopsin associated with retinitis pigmentosa

Dietary flavonoids exhibit many biologically-relevant functions and can potentially have beneficial effects in the treatment of pathological conditions. In spite of its well known antioxidant properties, scarce structural information is available on the interaction of flavonoids with membrane receptors. Advances in the structural biology of a specific class of membrane receptors, the G protein-coupled receptors, have significantly increased our understanding of drug action and paved the way for developing improved therapeutic approaches. We have analyzed the effect of the flavonoid quercetin on the conformation, stability and function of the G protein-coupled receptor rhodopsin, and the G90V mutant associated with the retinal degenerative disease retinitis pigmentosa. By using a combination of experimental and computational methods, we suggest that quercetin can act as an allosteric modulator of opsin regenerated with 9-cis-retinal and more importantly, that this binding has a positive effect on the stability and conformational properties of the G90V mutant associated with retinitis pigmentosa. These results open new possibilities to use quercetin and other flavonoids, in combination with specific retinoids like 9-cis-retinal, for the treatment of retinal degeneration associated with retinitis pigmentosa. Moreover, the use of flavonoids as allosteric modulators may also be applicable to other members of the G protein-coupled receptors superfamily.

Electrical Stimulation as a Means for Improving Vision

Evolving research has provided evidence that noninvasive electrical stimulation (ES) of the eye may be a promising therapy for either preserving or restoring vision in several retinal and optic nerve diseases. In this review, we focus on minimally invasive strategies for the delivery of ES and accordingly summarize the current literature on transcorneal, transorbital, and transpalpebral ES in both animal experiments and clinical studies. Various mechanisms are believed to underlie the effects of ES, including increased production of neurotrophic agents, improved chorioretinal blood circulation, and inhibition of proinflammatory cytokines. Different animal models have demonstrated favorable effects of ES on both the retina and the optic nerve. Promising effects of ES have also been demonstrated in clinical studies; however, all current studies have a lack of randomization and/or a control group (sham). There is thus a pressing need for a deeper understanding of the underlying mechanisms that govern clinical success and optimization of stimulation parameters in animal studies. In addition, such research should be followed by large, prospective, clinical studies to explore the full potential of ES. Through this review, we aim to provide insight to guide future research on ES as a potential therapy for improving vision.

Leber congenital amaurosis/early-onset severe retinal dystrophy: clinical features, molecular genetics and therapeutic interventions

Leber congenital amaurosis (LCA) and early-onset severe retinal dystrophy (EOSRD) are both genetically and phenotypically heterogeneous, and characterised clinically by severe congenital/early infancy visual loss, nystagmus, amaurotic pupils and markedly reduced/absent full-field electroretinograms. The vast genetic heterogeneity of inherited retinal disease has been established over the last 10 - 20 years, with disease-causing variants identified in 25 genes to date associated with LCA/EOSRD, accounting for 70–80% of cases, with thereby more genes yet to be identified. There is now far greater understanding of the structural and functional associations seen in the various LCA/EOSRD genotypes. Subsequent development/characterisation of LCA/EOSRD animal models has shed light on the underlying pathogenesis and allowed the demonstration of successful rescue with gene replacement therapy and pharmacological intervention in multiple models. These advancements have culminated in more than 12 completed, ongoing and anticipated phase I/II and phase III gene therapy and pharmacological human clinical trials. This review describes the clinical and genetic characteristics of LCA/EOSRD and the differential diagnoses to be considered. We discuss in further detail the diagnostic clinical features, pathophysiology, animal models and human treatment studies and trials, in the more common genetic subtypes and/or those closest to intervention.

Photodegradation of retinal bisretinoids in mouse models and implications for macular degeneration

Adducts of retinaldehyde (bisretinoids) form nonenzymatically in photoreceptor cells and accumulate in retinal pigment epithelial (RPE) cells as lipofuscin; these fluorophores are implicated in the pathogenesis of inherited and age-related macular degeneration (AMD). Here we demonstrate that bisretinoid photodegradation is ongoing in the eye. High-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) analysis of eyes of dark-reared and cyclic light-reared wild-type mice, together with comparisons of pigmented versus albino mice, revealed a relationship between intraocular light and reduced levels of the bisretinoids A2E and A2-glycero-phosphoethanolamine (A2-GPE). Analysis of the bisretinoids A2E, A2-GPE, A2-dihydropyridine-phosphatidylethanolamine (A2-DHP-PE), and all-trans-retinal dimer-phosphatidylethanolamine (all-trans-retinal dimer-PE) also decreases in albino Abca4(-/-) mice reared in cyclic light compared with darkness. In albino Abca4(-/-) mice receiving a diet supplemented with the antioxidant vitamin E, higher levels of RPE bisretinoid were evidenced by HPLC analysis and quantitation of fundus autofluorescence; this effect is consistent with photooxidative processes known to precede bisretinoid degradation. Amelioration of outer nuclear layer thinning indicated that vitamin E treatment protected photoreceptor cells. Conversely, in-cage exposure to short-wavelength light resulted in reduced fundus autofluorescence, decreased HPLC-quantified A2E, outer nuclear layer thinning, and increased methylglyoxal (MG)-adducted protein. MG was also released upon bisretinoid photodegradation in cells. We suggest that the lower levels of these diretinal adducts in cyclic light-reared and albino mice reflect photodegradative loss of bisretinoid. These mechanisms may underlie associations among AMD risk, oxidative mechanisms, and lifetime light exposure.

Lecithin:Retinol Acyltransferase: A Key Enzyme Involved in the Retinoid (visual) Cycle

Lecithin:retinol acyltransferase (LRAT) catalyzes the acyl transfer from the sn-1 position of phosphatidylcholine (PC) to all-trans-retinol, creating fatty acid retinyl esters (palmitoyl, stearoyl, and some unsaturated derivatives). In the eye, these retinyl esters are substrates for the 65 kDa retinoid isomerase (RPE65). LRAT is well characterized biochemically, and recent structural data from closely related family members of the NlpC/P60 superfamily and a chimeric protein have established its catalytic mechanism. Mutations in the LRAT gene are responsible for approximately 1% of reported cases of Leber congenital amaurosis (LCA). Lack of functional LRAT, expressed in the retinal pigmented epithelium (RPE), results in loss of the visual chromophore and photoreceptor degeneration. LCA is a rare hereditary retinal dystrophy with an early onset associated with mutations in one of 21 known genes. Protocols have been devised to identify therapeutics that compensate for mutations in RPE65, also associated with LCA. The same protocols can be adapted to combat dystrophies associated with LRAT. Improvement in the visual function of clinical recipients of therapy with recombinant adeno-associated virus (rAAV) vectors incorporating the RPE65 gene provides a proof of concept for LRAT, which functions in the same cell type and metabolic pathway as RPE65. In parallel, a clinical trial that employs oral 9-cis-retinyl acetate to replace the missing chromophore in RPE65 and LRAT causative disease has proven to be effective and free of adverse effects. This article summarizes the biochemistry of LRAT and examines chromophore replacement as a treatment for LCA caused by LRAT mutations.

Microphthalmia-associated transcription factor regulates the visual cycle genes Rlbp1 and Rdh5 in the retinal pigment epithelium

Regeneration of the visual pigment by cells of the retinal pigment epithelium (RPE) is fundamental to vision. Here we show that the microphthalmia-associated transcription factor, MITF, which plays a central role in the development and function of RPE cells, regulates the expression of two visual cycle genes, Rlbp1 which encodes retinaldehyde binding protein-1 (RLBP1), and Rdh5, which encodes retinol dehydrogenase-5 (RDH5). First, we found that Rlbp1 and Rdh5 are downregulated in optic cups and presumptive RPEs of Mitf-deficient mouse embryos. Second, experimental manipulation of MITF levels in human RPE cells in culture leads to corresponding modulations of the endogenous levels of RLBP1 and RDH5. Third, the retinal degeneration associated with the disruption of the visual cycle in Mitf-deficient mice can be partially corrected both structurally and functionally by an exogenous supply of 9-cis-retinal. We conclude that the expression of Rlbp1 and Rdh5 critically depends on functional Mitf in the RPE and suggest that MITF has an important role in controlling retinoid processing in the RPE.

Vitamin A and Vision

Visual systems detect light by monitoring the effect of photoisomerization of a chromophore on the release of a neurotransmitter from sensory neurons, known as rod and cone photoreceptor cells in vertebrate retina. In all known visual systems, the chromophore is 11-cis-retinal complexed with a protein, called opsin, and photoisomerization produces all-trans-retinal. In mammals, regeneration of 11-cis-retinal following photoisomerization occurs by a thermally driven isomerization reaction. Additional reactions are required during regeneration to protect cells from the toxicity of aldehyde forms of vitamin A that are essential to the visual process. Photochemical and phototransduction reactions in rods and cones are identical; however, reactions of the rod and cone visual pigment regeneration cycles differ, and perplexingly, rod and cone regeneration cycles appear to use different mechanisms to overcome the energy barrier involved in converting all-trans- to 11-cis-retinoid. Abnormal processing of all-trans-retinal in the rod regeneration cycle leads to retinal degeneration, suggesting that excessive amounts of the retinoid itself or its derivatives are toxic. This line of reasoning led to the development of various approaches to modifying the activity of the rod visual cycle as a possible therapeutic approach to delay or prevent retinal degeneration in inherited retinal diseases and perhaps in the dry form of macular degeneration (geographic atrophy). In spite of great progress in understanding the functioning of rod and cone regeneration cycles at a molecular level, resolution of a number of remaining puzzling issues will offer insight into the amelioration of several blinding retinal diseases.

Safety and Proof-of-Concept Study of Oral QLT091001 in Retinitis Pigmentosa Due to Inherited Deficiencies of Retinal Pigment Epithelial 65 Protein (RPE65) or Lecithin:Retinol Acyltransferase (LRAT)

Restoring vision in inherited retinal degenerations remains an unmet medical need. In mice exhibiting a genetically engineered block of the visual cycle, vision was recently successfully restored by oral administration of 9-cis-retinyl acetate (QLT091001). Safety and visual outcomes of a once-daily oral dose of 40 mg/m²/day QLT091001 for 7 consecutive days was investigated in an international, multi-center, open-label, proof-of-concept study in 18 patients with RPE65- or LRAT-related retinitis pigmentosa. Eight of 18 patients (44%) showed a ≥20% increase and 4 of 18 (22%) showed a ≥40% increase in functional retinal area determined from Goldmann visual fields; 12 (67%) and 5 (28%) of 18 patients showed a ≥5 and ≥10 ETDRS letter score increase of visual acuity, respectively, in one or both eyes at two or more visits within 2 months of treatment. In two patients who underwent fMRI, a significant positive response was measured to stimuli of medium contrast, moving, pattern targets in both left and right hemispheres of the occipital cortex. There were no serious adverse events. Treatment-related adverse events were transient and the most common included headache, photophobia, nausea, vomiting, and minor biochemical abnormalities. Measuring the outer segment length of the photoreceptor layer with high-definition optical coherence tomography was highly predictive of treatment responses with responders having a significantly larger baseline outer segment thickness (11.7 ± 4.8 μm, mean ± 95% CI) than non-responders (3.5 ± 1.2 μm). This structure-function relationship suggests that treatment with QLT091001 is more likely to be efficacious if there is sufficient photoreceptor integrity.

Outer Segment Thickness Predicts Visual Field Response to QLT091001 in Patients with RPE65 or LRAT Mutations

PURPOSE

To determine whether the degree of change in Goldmann visual fields (GVFs) following oral administration of QLT091001 was related to baseline measures of retinal structure.

METHODS

Oral QLT091001 was administered once daily for 7 days in all study patients. Comprehensive ophthalmic testing, including spectral-domain optical coherence tomography (SD-OCT), was conducted in 14 patients with Leber congenital amaurosis (LCA) and 18 patients with retinitis pigmentosa (RP) at seven international sites. Average thickness of the outer segment (OS) layer was calculated over central 20°. Both eyes of each subject were evaluated separately.

RESULTS

Nineteen of 28 eyes (68%) with LCA and 13 of 36 eyes (36%) with RP responded to QLT091001. Among these responders, the average baseline thickness of the OS layer (central 20°) was 13.5 μm in the LCA cohort and 11.7 μm in the RP cohort. Nonresponders had average baseline OS thickness of less than 4.6 μm in both cohorts. The OS thickness in the central 20° was significantly shorter in nonresponders than responders in the LCA cohort (P = 0.01, t-test) and in the RP cohort (P = 0.02, Wilcoxon rank sum test). The OS thickness in the central 20° did not change significantly from baseline during the first 2 months (P = 0.09, t-test, paired).

CONCLUSIONS

The present findings suggest that there is a close parallel between the thickness of the photoreceptor layer and the potential for functional improvement in these patients.

TRANSLATIONAL RELEVANCE

SD-OCT thickness in the central retina may be useful for predicting the visual field response in the peripheral retina to QLT091001. (https://clinicaltrials.gov/ct2/show/NCT01014052 number, NCT01014052).

Ligand control of g protein-coupled receptor activity: new insights

In this issue of Chemistry & Biology, Srinivasan and colleagues describe their study of ligand-protein interactions in visual pigments. Comparing the more stable isomeric ligand 9-cis retinal to the physiologically occurring 11-cis retinal, they report differences in ligand specificity and opsin conformational stability not previously described for bleached rhodopsin.

Chemistry and biology of the initial steps in vision: the Friedenwald lecture

Visual transduction is the process in the eye whereby absorption of light in the retina is translated into electrical signals that ultimately reach the brain. The first challenge presented by visual transduction is to understand its molecular basis. We know that maintenance of vision is a continuous process requiring the activation and subsequent restoration of a vitamin A-derived chromophore through a series of chemical reactions catalyzed by enzymes in the retina and retinal pigment epithelium (RPE). Diverse biochemical approaches that identified key proteins and reactions were essential to achieve a mechanistic understanding of these visual processes. The three-dimensional arrangements of these enzymes' polypeptide chains provide invaluable insights into their mechanisms of action. A wealth of information has already been obtained by solving high-resolution crystal structures of both rhodopsin and the retinoid isomerase from pigment RPE (RPE65). Rhodopsin, which is activated by photoisomerization of its 11-cis-retinylidene chromophore, is a prototypical member of a large family of membrane-bound proteins called G protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs). RPE65 is a retinoid isomerase critical for regeneration of the chromophore. Electron microscopy (EM) and atomic force microscopy have provided insights into how certain proteins are assembled to form much larger structures such as rod photoreceptor cell outer segment membranes. A second challenge of visual transduction is to use this knowledge to devise therapeutic approaches that can prevent or reverse conditions leading to blindness. Imaging modalities like optical coherence tomography (OCT) and scanning laser ophthalmoscopy (SLO) applied to appropriate animal models as well as human retinal imaging have been employed to characterize blinding diseases, monitor their progression, and evaluate the success of therapeutic agents. Lately two-photon (2-PO) imaging, together with biochemical assays, are revealing functional aspects of vision at a new molecular level. These multidisciplinary approaches combined with suitable animal models and inbred mutant species can be especially helpful in translating provocative cell and tissue culture findings into therapeutic options for further development in animals and eventually in humans. A host of different approaches and techniques is required for substantial progress in understanding fundamental properties of the visual system.

Clinical characteristics and current therapies for inherited retinal degenerations

Inherited retinal degenerations (IRDs) encompass a large group of clinically and genetically heterogeneous diseases that affect approximately 1 in 3000 people (>2 million people worldwide) (Bessant DA, Ali RR, Bhattacharya SS. 2001. Molecular genetics and prospects for therapy of the inherited retinal dystrophies. Curr Opin Genet Dev 11: 307-316.). IRDs may be inherited as Mendelian traits or through mitochondrial DNA, and may affect the entire retina (e.g., rod-cone dystrophy, also known as retinitis pigmentosa, cone dystrophy, cone-rod dystrophy, choroideremia, Usher syndrome, and Bardet-Bidel syndrome) or be restricted to the macula (e.g., Stargardt disease, Best disease, and Sorsby fundus dystrophy), ultimately leading to blindness. IRDs are a major cause of severe vision loss, with profound impact on patients and society. Although IRDs remain untreatable today, significant progress toward therapeutic strategies for IRDs has marked the past two decades. This progress has been based on better understanding of the pathophysiological pathways of these diseases and on technological advances.

Noninvasive two-photon microscopy imaging of mouse retina and retinal pigment epithelium through the pupil of the eye

Two-photon excitation microscopy can image retinal molecular processes in vivo. Intrinsically fluorescent retinyl esters in subcellular structures called retinosomes are an integral part of the visual chromophore regeneration pathway. Fluorescent condensation products of all-trans-retinal accumulate in the eye with age and are also associated with age-related macular degeneration (AMD). Here, we report repetitive, dynamic imaging of these compounds in live mice through the pupil of the eye. By leveraging advanced adaptive optics, we developed a data acquisition algorithm that permitted the identification of retinosomes and condensation products in the retinal pigment epithelium by their characteristic localization, spectral properties and absence in genetically modified or drug-treated mice. This imaging approach has the potential to detect early molecular changes in retinoid metabolism that trigger light- and AMD-induced retinal defects and to assess the effectiveness of treatments for these conditions.

Optogenetics, visual prosthesis and electrostimulation for retinal dystrophies

PURPOSE OF REVIEW

Outer retinal degenerations such as retinitis pigmentosa can cause profound vision loss. Various treatment strategies are being pursued to potentially restore functional vision in these patients.

RECENT FINDINGS

Advances in retinal prostheses have restored some vision in patients previously blind from retinitis pigmentosa. Optogenetics is another area that shows promise for restoration of vision. Transcorneal electrostimulation shows some efficacy to treat these patients as well.

SUMMARY

We review recent advances in optogenetics, visual prosthesis and electrostimulation to treat outer retinal degenerations.

Vitamin A derivatives as treatment options for retinal degenerative diseases

The visual cycle is a sequential enzymatic reaction for vitamin A, all-trans-retinol, occurring in the outer layer of the human retina and is essential for the maintenance of vision. The central source of retinol is derived from dietary intake of both retinol and pro-vitamin A carotenoids. A series of enzymatic reactions, located in both the photoreceptor outer segment and the retinal pigment epithelium, transform retinol into the visual chromophore 11-cis-retinal, regenerating visual pigments. Retina specific proteins carry out the majority of the visual cycle, and any significant interruption in this sequence of reactions is capable of causing varying degrees of blindness. Among these important proteins are Lecithin:retinol acyltransferase (LRAT) and retinal pigment epithelium-specific 65-kDa protein (RPE65) known to be responsible for esterification of retinol to all-trans-retinyl esters and isomerization of these esters to 11-cis-retinal, respectively. Deleterious mutations in these genes are identified in human retinal diseases that cause blindness, such as Leber congenital amaurosis (LCA) and retinitis pigmentosa (RP). Herein, we discuss the pathology of 11-cis-retinal deficiency caused by these mutations in both animal disease models and human patients. We also review novel therapeutic strategies employing artificial visual chromophore 9-cis-retinoids which have been employed in clinical trials involving LCA patients.