Response Complexity Reduces Errors on a Response Inhibition Task

Response Preparation Affects Cognitive Motor Control

OBJECTIVE

We investigated how the ability to control whether or not to inhibit an action is affected by the response preparation.

BACKGROUND

The ability to control actions is a central skill to properly behave in complex environments. Increased levels of response preparation are associated with reduced response times, but how they directly affect the ability to control actions is not well explored. We investigated how the response preparation affects the ability to control the generation of actions in the context of a stop selective task.

METHOD

Participants performed a visuo-motor stop selective task.

RESULTS

We found that an increased level of response preparation reduced the ability to control actions. In the condition with high preparation, we observed shorter response times and increased probability of wrong responses to a request to stop, compared to a condition with a lower level of preparation.

CONCLUSION

We demonstrated that high response preparation hinders action control.

APPLICATION

Understanding the cognitive factors that affect the ability to properly control actions is crucial to develop devices that can be exploited in different contexts such as the aviation, industrial, and military. We demonstrated that subjects' response preparation is a key factor influencing their ability to flexibly control their reaction to different stimuli. This study offers a suitable paradigm that can be used to investigate which system features in a controlled task promote an optimal balance between response speed and error rate.

Response uncertainty influences response bias in the sustained attention to response task: a signal detection theory perspective

In the current investigation, we modified the high Go, low No-Go Sustained Attention to Response Task (SART) by replacing the single response on Go trials with a dual response to increase response uncertainty. In three experiments, a total of 80 participants completed either the original SART with no response uncertainty regarding the Go stimuli, or versions of the dual response SART in which response probabilities for the two possible responses to the Go stimuli varied from 0.9-0.1, 0.7-0.3, to 0.5-0.5. This resulted in a scale of increasing response uncertainty based on information theory to the Go stimuli. The probability of No-Go withhold stimuli was kept.11 in all experiments. Using the Signal Detection Theory perspective proposed by Bedi et al. (Psychological Research: 1-10, 2022), we predicted that increasing response uncertainty would result in a conservative response bias shift, noted by decreased errors of commission and slower response times to both Go and No-Go stimuli. These predictions were verified. The errors of commission in the SART may not be a measures of conscious awareness per se, but instead indicative of the level of participant trigger happiness-the willingness to respond quickly.

Go-stimuli probability influences response bias in the sustained attention to response task: a signal detection theory perspective

The sustained attention to response task (SART) is a popular measure in the psychology and neuroscience of attention. The underlying psychological cause for errors, in particular errors of commission, in the SART is actively disputed. Some researchers have suggested task-disengagement due to mind-wandering or mindlessness, and others have proposed strategic choices. In this study we explored an alternative perspective based on Signal Detection Theory, in which the high rate of commission errors in the SART reflects simply a shift in response bias (criterion) due to the high prevalence of Go-stimuli. We randomly assigned 406 participants to one of ten Go-stimuli prevalence rates (50%, 64%, 74%, 78%, 82%, 86%, 90%, 94%, 98% and 100%). As Go-stimuli prevalence increased reaction times to both Go and No-Go stimuli decreased, omission errors decreased and commission errors increased. These all were predicted from a hypothesized bias shift, but the findings were not compatible with some alternative theories of SART performance. These findings may have implications for similar tasks.

How speed impacts threat assessment in lethal force decisions

Despite the importance of being both fast and accurate in lethal force decisions, there is little empirical evidence to identify how speed impacts threat-related decisions and perception. Two experiments used speeded and unspeeded manipulations to determine how the speed imperative impacted threat assessments. Experiment 1 used drift diffusion modeling to quantify decision parameters, including rate of information processing, decision threshold, bias, and non-decisional processes. Speeded conditions reduced the information threshold needed to make decisions and shortened non-decisional processes, yet this manipulation had no impact on the rate of information processing or starting bias. Experiment 2 explored perceptual differences in threat assessment. Participants confidently made threat assessments despite only 30 ms exposure to stimuli with little impact on their subjective threat ratings based on exposure duration. Taken together, these results document the influence of speed on decision-making parameters of threat assessments while demonstrating little impact on threat perception.

Antidepressants combined with psychodrama improve the coping style and cognitive control network in patients with childhood trauma-associated major depressive disorder

BACKGROUND

The use of antidepressant therapy alone has a limited efficacy in patients with childhood trauma-associated major depressive disorder (MDD). However, the effectiveness of antidepressant treatment combined with psychodrama in these patients is unclear.

AIM

To evaluate the effectiveness of antidepressant treatment combined with psychodrama.

METHODS

Patients with childhood trauma-associated MDD treated with antidepressants were randomly assigned to either the psychodrama intervention (observation group) or the general health education intervention (control group) and received combination treatment for 6 mo. The observation group received general health education given by the investigator together with the “semi-structured group intervention model” of Yi Shu psychodrama. A total of 46 patients were recruited, including 29 cases in the observation group and 17 cases in the control group. Symptoms of depression and anxiety as well as coping style and resting-state functional magnetic resonance imaging were assessed before and after the intervention.

RESULTS

Symptoms of depression and anxiety, measured by the Hamilton Depression Scale, Beck Depression Inventory, and Beck Anxiety Inventory, were reduced after the intervention in both groups of patients. The coping style of the observation group improved significantly in contrast to the control group, which did not. In addition, an interaction between treatment and time in the right superior parietal gyrus node was found. Furthermore, functional connectivity between the right superior parietal gyrus and left inferior frontal gyrus in the observation group increased after the intervention, while in the control group the connectivity decreased.

CONCLUSION

This study supports the use of combined treatment with antidepressants and psychodrama to improve the coping style of patients with childhood trauma-associated MDD. Functional connectivity between the superior parietal gyrus and inferior frontal gyrus was increased after this combined treatment. We speculate that psychodrama enhances the internal connectivity of the cognitive control network and corrects the negative attention bias of patients with childhood trauma-associated MDD. Elucidating the neurobiological features of patients with childhood trauma-associated MDD is important for the development of methods that can assist in early diagnosis and intervention.

Virtual Reality Greenspaces: Does Level of Immersion Affect Directed Attention Restoration in VR Environments?

Research on attention restoration theory has provided consistent results over the years, and exposure to nature has been found to significantly improve and restore directed attention fatigue. However, rapid urbanisation has made it increasingly difficult for human beings to interact with unpolluted nature. Countries such as Singapore began to integrate nature into city planning and into the designs of buildings to help resident satisfaction and well-being. Local studies have had contradictory outcomes; residents report significantly higher restoration and affect towards vertical integrated greeneries, but many would still prefer traditional on-the-ground foliage. Interest in outdoor greenspaces is variable because Singapore’s high heat and humid climate make it uncomfortable to interact with outside nature for prolonged periods. The current study tested alternative modalities that can provide residents with on-the-ground foliage interactions, without the discomfort of being outdoors. Virtual exposures with different levels of immersion (high and low) and types of scenes (nature and urban) were tested for effects on perceived presence, perceived restoration and objective restoration. A total of 120 adult participants completed the study, which revealed that a virtual reality-nature condition provided significantly superior directed attention restoration and higher presence ratings. Immersive tendency did not affect perceived presence; neither did it moderate the relationship between perceived presence and its corresponding perceived restoration.

The effects of real-time performance feedback and performance emphasis on the sustained attention to response task (SART)

The sustained attention to response task (SART) has been used for over 20 years to assess participants' response times and inability to withhold to No-Go stimuli (commission errors). While there is debate in the literature regarding what causes commissions errors in the SART, there is agreement the SART is subject to a speed-accuracy trade-off (SATO). Researchers have demonstrated that performance on the SART can be influenced by directive instructions to participants to prioritize either speed or accuracy during the task. In the present study, we investigated whether real-time performance feedback and whether feedback emphasis (emphasizing speed or accuracy) affected participants' response times and accuracy. We found performance feedback per se had no impact on performance, but performance emphasis did affect performance, apparently shifting the SATO. This finding provides further evidence that the commission errors in the SART are not indicative of sustained attention or vigilance as those terms are commonly used in the literature, but more likely assess response strategy and motor control (or lack of motor control). These findings have implications for the psychological assessment literature, as well as applied areas where SART findings have been utilized such as shoot/no-shoot decision making.

Monitoring stress and allostatic load in first responders and tactical operators using heart rate variability: a systematic review

BACKGROUND

Awareness of the cumulative stress placed on first responders and tactical operators is required to manage acute fatigue, which can impair occupational performance, and may precipitate negative chronic health outcomes. The aim of this review was to investigate the utility of heart rate variability (HRV) to monitor stress and allostatic load among these populations.

METHODS

A systematic search of Academic Search Complete, MEDLINE complete, PsycINFO, SPORTDiscus and Scopus databases was conducted. Eligibility criteria: original peer reviewed research articles, written in English, published between 1985 and 2020, using human participants employed as a first responder or tactical operator, free from any psychological disorder.

RESULTS

Of the 360 articles screened, 60 met the inclusion criteria and were included for full text assessment. Articles were classified based on single or repeated stressor exposure and the time of HRV assessment (baseline, during stressor, post stressor). Singular stressful events elicited a reduction in HRV from baseline to during the event. Stressors of greater magnitude reduced HRV for extended durations post stressor. Lower resting HRV was associated with lower situational awareness and impaired decision-making performance in marksmanship and navigation tasks. There were insufficient studies to evaluate the utility of HRV to assess allostatic load in repeated stressor contexts.

CONCLUSION

A reduction in HRV occurred in response to acute physical and cognitive occupational stressors. A slower rate of recovery of HRV after the completion of acute occupational stressors appears to occur in response to stressors of greater magnitude. The association between lower HRV and lower decision-making performance poses as a useful tool but further investigations on within subject changes between these factors and their relationship is required. More research is required to investigate the suitability of HRV as a measure of allostatic load in repeated stress exposures for fatigue management in first responder and tactical operators.

The role of inhibitory control in shoot/don't-shoot decisions

Previous work has demonstrated a link between cognitive abilities, specifically inhibitory control and lethal force decision-making performance. However, many previously used approaches to simulating shoot/don't shoot scenarios have lacked ecological validity. There is a need to investigate how inhibitory control impacts shoot/don't decisions using realistic simulations to better translate the findings to military and law enforcement settings. This study used multiple cognitive control tasks incorporating discrete judgements in go/no-go and stop signal tasks as well as subjective judgements in go/no-go tasks with both colour stimuli and emotional faces. These combined tasks provided a comprehensive evaluation of inhibitory control abilities. To ensure ecological validity in shooting performance, existing military training scenarios incorporated realistic weaponry and aiming behaviours across different shoot/don't-shoot simulations. The inhibitory control battery identified five principal components from the various tasks, including: stopping ability, response speed, emotion detection, colour detection, and emotional biases. These principal inhibitory control components were entered into hierarchical linear regressions with the dependent variables of unintended casualties inflicted and lethal rounds fired, respectively. Stopping ability better predicted the likelihood of inflicting an unintended casualty, whereas response speed better predicted the number of lethal rounds fired. These regression models included baseline metrics of marksmanship and shots fired, which supports a role for inhibitory control above and beyond basic shooting abilities or strategy. These collective findings provide mechanistic support for the relationship between inhibitory control and errors in shoot/don't-shoot decision-making while using realistic military training scenarios.

Developing scenarios that evoke shoot/don't-shoot errors

Multiple errors can occur in a use-of-force scenario, although some critical errors involve unintended casualties where the target should never have been fired upon. Training instructors utilize a variety of methods to ensure military and law enforcement personnel do not inflict unintended casualties. However, there is little empirical evidence about the best methods to design a shooting simulation that might evoke these errors, which is critical to ensure the validity of any assessment or training exercise. The current study analyzed performance across a variety of simulated shooting scenarios developed and applied for military training purposes. Several factors were assessed based upon either the scenario or human performance. Scenario type, number of shots fired, and the ratio of hostiles-to-non-hostiles were significant predictors for the likelihood of inflicting an unintended casualty. This collected evidence should help improve scenario design for future training simulations that will help avoid these critical shooting errors.