Blurred Ideas: How Perpetrator Behavior, Target Response, and Observer Gender Can Influence Perceptions of Workplace Sexual Harassment

Despite increasing awareness, sexual harassment remains a significant concern in the workplace. The enduring problem of sexual harassment seems to persist due to a lack of clarity regarding what behaviors qualify as harassment. Furthermore, the interpretation of these behaviors is influenced by contextual and relational factors, contributing to the complexity of addressing and preventing such incidents. This study builds on existing research by investigating how the severity of sexually harassing behavior, the response from the target, and the gender of the participant contribute to labeling behavior as sexual harassment. Using an online experimental scenario-based survey, 1,700 (850 female, 850 male) currently employed participants were presented with a single workplace scenario that manipulated the severity of the sexual harassment behavior and the target's response. Participants were then asked to assess the appropriateness of the behavior, label it as sexual harassment or not, and rate their confidence in their labeling decision. The results revealed that less severe sexual harassment behaviors, targets who displayed interest, and male participants were more likely to perceive the behavior as less inappropriate and were less inclined to label it as sexual harassment. These findings have implications for shaping the definition of sexual harassment and designing training programs for heightened awareness.

The Incidence and Outcomes of Sexual Harassment Among Hispanic and Non-Hispanic White Women: A Comparison Across Levels of Cultural Affiliation

An extensive body of literature has documented the widespread and damaging nature of sexual harassment among Anglo women, but little attention has focused on the experiences of women of color. The current paper begins to address this gap by comparing sexual harassment incidence rates and psychological and work-related outcomes of Hispanic and non-Hispanic White women across varying levels of cultural affiliation. Chi-square tests of association suggest that risk of harassment increases with affiliation to the mainstream U.S. culture, and hierarchical regression analyses suggest that cultural affiliation moderates the relation between sexual harassment and occupational functioning. These provocative findings are discussed in the context of social and economic vulnerability, socio-sexual norms, and cultural background.

“Good Women” and “Bad Women”

Cultural influence on perception and judgement of sexual harassment is widely discussed in sexual harassment research. Yet, very few studies have delved deeper into the various norms and values of a culture, to understand how perception and interpretation of sexual harassment at the workplace is influenced by culture. This article attempts to fill this gap, by exploring how gendered behavioural norms instilled by Sri Lankan culture, shape perceptions about every day socio-sexual behaviours that occur in workplaces, influencing the interpretation and perception about workplace sexual harassment. Employing qualitative research methodology, in-depth interviews were used to gather information. The findings of the study unearthed how Sri Lankan women have developed notions of “good women” and “bad women”, rooted on various gendered behavioural norms internalized in them through rigorous primary and secondary socialization processes. Constant advices on proper behaviours, sanctions on dress codes and advices on the nature and type of relationships that women should maintain with the opposite gender, appear to influence women’s notions of this “good women” and “bad women” images, which in turn influence their perceptions about what is acceptable and unacceptable socio-sexual behaviours at workplace, and consequently, how they perceive, interpret and respond to instances of sexual harassment at workplace.

Sexual harassment among young tourists visiting Mediterranean resorts

Despite the known increase in substance use and risky sexual behaviors among young people during holiday periods, issues of sexual harassment (SH) and having sex against one's will (SAW) have not received adequate attention. We implemented a cross-sectional airport-based study to identify experience of SH and SAW in 6,502 British and German holidaymakers aged 16-35 years visiting tourist resorts in Southern Europe (Crete, Cyprus, Italy, Portugal, and Spain) in summer 2009. Across all participants, 8.6 % reported SH during their holiday and 1.5 % reported SAW. Women reported higher levels of SH than heterosexual males. However, gay and bisexual males reported SH levels similar to females and the highest levels of SAW. Of 19 predictor variables tested, ten were independently associated with SH. SH was increased in those who were visitors to Mallorca or Crete, British, younger, female, gay or bisexual, frequently drunk on holiday, cocaine users, and attracted to bars where people get drunk, or where there are opportunities for sex. Among 13 predictor variables tested for SAW, four were significant. SAW reduced in those visiting Cyprus, and was strongly associated with being a gay or bisexual male, using cannabis on holiday and being attracted to bars where there were opportunities for sex. Holiday resorts represent a key location for SH and SAW, especially for holidaymakers who get drunk and use drugs. Preventive programs can raise awareness of the risks of unwanted sexual encounters on holiday and work with the tourist industry and tourist authorities to develop environments where sexual aggression is not tolerated.

Sexual harassment--a touchy subject for nurses

PURPOSE

The purpose of this paper is to examine prevalence of sexual harassment (SH) in nursing and the environmental factors that contribute to incidents of SH.

DESIGN/METHODOLOGY/APPROACH

A mixed-method research methodology is adopted. A total of 538 questionnaires are collected from nurses working in eight different hospitals across metropolitan and rural areas in Australia. A total of 23 in-depth semi-structured interviews are conducted.

FINDINGS

Prevalence of SH in nursing is high with 60 percent of female nurses and 34 percent of male nurses reporting a SH incident in the two-year period prior to this paper. The questionnaire data suggest that patients are the most likely perpetrator, however, the interviews name physicians as typical perpetrators. A model is tested via structural equation modelling and revealed that leadership behaviors, an unbalanced job gender ratio and no prior socialization are positively associated with SH.

RESEARCH LIMITATIONS/IMPLICATIONS

This paper closes gaps in theory by introducing a new framework explaining the contextual factors that heighten a nurses' probability of being harassed. Some variables such as organizational culture and specific nursing units have not been explored and can be considered a limitation of the paper.

PRACTICAL IMPLICATIONS

The results of this paper assist health professionals to adopt proactive practices for managing SH and plan a workforce where SH is minimized.

ORIGINALITY/VALUE

This paper illustrates the prevalence of different types of SH and the causes for male and female nurses that have not been investigated previously. The results help health managers make informed decisions in regard to intervention strategies.

Likelihood to Sexually Harass

We tested hypotheses regarding the association of national culture with the likelihood to sexually harass by comparing samples of male and female international students. Our hypotheses were derived from implications of Hofstede's cross cultural dimension of power distance in light of the developing sexual harassment literature in an international context. One hundred and seventy eight American, Indian, and Chinese male and female students were administered the Likelihood to Sexually Harass (LSH) survey. Based on the results, most of our hypotheses were supported, although there was one unanticipated finding regarding female subjects. Our findings indicated that while males scored significantly higher than females on the LSH scale, nationality had a strong and independent effect on the LSH scores. Chinese and Indian males scored significantly higher on the LSH than American males. Chinese females scored significantly higher on the LSH instrument than American females. Hofstede's power distance dimension appears to capture an important aspect of national culture that shapes the perceptions and behaviors of both males and females in their proclivity to sexually exploit others with less power. Results and the limitations of the study as well as the future need to conduct sexual harassment research on diverse populations from different countries are discussed.

Cognition or involvement? Explaining sexual-coercion in high-school dating

The purpose of the present study was to examine a predictive model of perpetration of, and victimization by, sexual coercive practices. The theoretical perspective focused on the interactive nature of dating and sexual coercion within the dating context. The interactive nature of sexual coercion assumes that in each dating encounter, partners have expectations of developing some level of sexual and romantic relations. Thus, one of the partners may initiate a sexual advancement, while the other reacts to this initiation. The reaction may range from cooperation, through passive reaction to straight forward resistance. Any attempt to continue in the face of resistance should be defined as an attempt at sexual coercion. In order to asses perpetration and victimization risks, a planned behavior model was examined, including the relative importance of personal attitudes and subjective norms, operationalized as perceived peers' expectations. Further, the role of other factors related to social/cultural background (such as immigration status, religiosity, and gender) in contributing to either risk of victimization and perpetration was examined. Instruments and sample: A factorial survey design was carried out on a sample of 329 adolescents in eleventh grade, 157 males and 172 females. The findings indicate that males are more prone to both victimization and perpetration of sexual coercion. Overall, the current conceptualization of dating sexual coercion as an interactional process, based on socially constructed and personally interpreted scripts, has enabled the comparison of two major explanatory models--the TPB and the involvement model, and to show the primacy of involvement.

International Sexual Harassment

This paper on international sexual harassment begins with a presentation of the definitions, models, and consequences of sexual harassment. Following this discussion, a description is given of a nine-country research program that examined reactions to academic sexual harassment. A brief review of incidence studies and international laws related to sexual harassment are also included.

International Perspectives on Sexual Harassment of College Students: The Sounds of Silence

The incidence, psychological dimensions, reporting, and impact of sexual harassment of college students throughout the world are reviewed. Special attention is paid to methodological constraints in conducting cross-cultural research in sexual harassment, including difficulty in securing research participants, different methodologies to collect incidence data, use of retrospective data, and varying, definitions of sexual harassment. Recommendations for implementing intervention programs are offered. The strategies suggested deal with the social causes that maintain the harassment, including renegotiating the balance of power between men and women.

Bullying and sexual harassment among Brazilian high school students

Bullying and sexual harassment at school have received recent attention in developed countries; however, they have been neglected in Latin America. Thus, the authors investigated these phenomena among 400 Brazilian high school students from two high schools (one private and one public). Analyses using t-tests showed that boys bullied and sexually harassed their peers more often than girls did. Hierarchical multiple regression analyses showed that boys and girls who scored high on general misconduct bullied their peers more often than those who scored low on general misconduct. Boys who believed they would be punished by their teachers for bullying and who scored low on benevolent sexism bullied more often than boys who believed they would not be punished by their teachers and who scored high on benevolent sexism. Moreover, bullying predicted peer sexual harassment for boys and girls. Recommendations to prevent bullying and sexual harassment are offered.

Test of the cross-cultural generalizability of a model of sexual harassment

Sexual harassment research has been primarily limited to examination of the phenomena in U.S. organizations; attempts to explore the generalizability of constructs and theoretical models across cultures are rare. This study examined (a) the measurement equivalence of survey scales in U.S. and Turkish samples using mean and covariance structure analysis and (b) the generalizability of the L. F. Fitzgerald, F. Drasgow, C. L. Hulin, M. J. Gelfand, and V. J. Magley (1997) model of sexual harassment to the Turkish context using structural equations modeling. Analyses used questionnaire data from 336 Turkish women and 455 women from the United States. The results indicate that, in general, the survey scales demonstrate measurement equivalence and the pattern of relationships in the Fitzgerald et al. model generalizes to the Turkish culture. These results support the usefulness of the model for explaining sexual harassment experiences in a variety of organizational and cultural contexts.