The effect of the electrode potential on the release of mercury from dental amalgam

In Situ Surface Biodegradation of Restorative Materials

This study aimed to evaluate the surface characteristics of restorative materials (roughness, hardness, chemical changes by energy-dispersive spectroscopy [EDX], and scanning electron microscopy [SEM]) submitted to in situ biodegradation. Fifteen discs of each material (IPS e.max [EM], Filtek Supreme [FS], Vitremer [VI], Ketac Molar Easymix [KM], and Amalgam GS-80 [AM]) were fabricated in a metallic mold (4.0 mm × 1.5 mm). Roughness, hardness, SEM, and EDX were then evaluated. Fifteen healthy volunteers used a palatal device containing one disc of each restorative material for seven days. After the biodegradation, the roughness, hardness, SEM, and EDX were once again evaluated. Data obtained from the roughness and hardness evaluations were submitted to Kolmogorov-Smirnov and Tukey-Kramer tests (p<0.05). All esthetic restorative materials showed a significant increase in the roughness after biodegradation. Before biodegradation, significant differences in the hardness among the materials were seen: EM>AM>FS>KM>VI. After biodegradation, the hardness was significantly altered among the materials studied: EM>AM>FS=KM>VI, along with a significant increase in the hardness for AM, KM, and VI. SEM images indicated degradation on the surface of all materials, showing porosities, cracks, and roughness. Furthermore, after biodegradation, FS showed the presence of Cl, K, and Ca on the surface, while F was not present on the VI and KM surfaces. EM and AM did not have alterations in their chemical composition after biodegradation. It was concluded that the dental biofilm accumulation in situ on different restorative materials is a material-dependent parameter. Overall, all materials changed after biodegradation: esthetic restorative materials showed increased roughness, confirmed by SEM, and the ionomer materials and silver amalgam showed a significantly higher hardness. Finally, the initial chemical composition of the composite resin and ionomer materials evaluated was significantly altered by the action of the biofilm in situ.

The mechanism of gingiva metallic pigmentations formation

The occurrence of blue-grey areas in the soft tissue represents one of the problems affecting patients whose teeth have been restored using metallic materials. It is generally accepted that it is caused by mechanical penetration of a metallic material into the soft tissue. Several facts indicate that this mechanism is not general. The aim of the study was to determine an alternative mechanism of the origin of pigmentations, based on the corrosion interaction of metallic materials used in prosthodontics with the oral environment. The study was comprised of an analysis of pigment particles, determination of exposure conditions of metallic materials in vivo and laboratory evaluation of corrosion properties of the studied materials. Particles containing silver, sulphur and/or selenium could be seen in ultra-thin sections in the lamina propria gingivae. Comparison of the corrosion laboratory results with the results of in vivo measurements indicated the intensification of corrosion under these conditions. Amalgams and silver-containing alloys used for teeth restorations may release silver under the conditions of the oral cavity. The formation of soluble silver compounds in the sulcular area or in a crevice between the crown and the cast post-and-core reconstruction facilitates their transport to the soft tissue and subsequent deposition.

Corrosion potential recovery of dental amalgam restorations following prophylaxis

OBJECTIVE

Dental amalgam restorations are subjected to abrasion during selective prophylaxis that can damage or remove the protective oxide and result in increased rates of corrosion and chemical dissolution of mercury. It was the objective of this research to study the corrosion potential change of dental amalgam restorations to obtain an indication of the time required for in vivo repassivation following prophylaxis.

METHODS

The corrosion potentials of 27 Class I and Class II amalgam restorations were measured pre- and post-prophylaxis using a high impedance voltmeter and a Ag/AgCl micro-reference electrode. Prophylaxis was performed for approximately 2s on each amalgam surface using a slow-speed handpiece with a rubber-cup and commercial abrasive paste. Subjects thoroughly rinsed before the post-prophylaxis corrosion potentials were measured. The data were analyzed using a confidence interval, a t-test and correlation analysis.

RESULTS

The pre- and post-prophylaxis mean corrosion potentials were, respectively, -132 (27)mV and -126 (27)mV. The mean of the differences between the pre- and post-prophylaxis corrosion potentials was 6.1 (28)mV, with an associated 95% confidence interval of (-4.8, 17)mV. A t-test showed the mean absolute difference in corrosion potential was less than 50 mV (p<0.0001).

SIGNIFICANCE

The results of this study show that the post-prophylaxis recovery of the corrosion potential of amalgam restorations occurred by at most 10-44 min, indicating that the period of elevated corrosion rate and elevated chemical dissolution rate of mercury, due to oxide damage or removal, may be short-lived.

Disinfectants' effect on mercury release from amalgam

BACKGROUND

Mercury environmental discharge is under increased scrutiny by the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA). Dental amalgam should be processed properly to prevent an additional environmental burden. Some processing agencies require that submitted amalgam be noninfectious. Investigations have demonstrated that oxidizing disinfectants mobilize mercury from amalgam into solution and add mercury to the environmental burden if it is disposed of improperly. The authors conducted a study to evaluate the effect of representative disinfectants on amalgam mercury release.

METHODS

The authors sized a high-copper spherical amalgam alloy to match that typically found in dental unit suction traps. They exposed 20 grams of the alloy to several disinfectant solutions and evaluated the filtered supernatant solution for mercury content.

RESULTS

Chlorine disinfectant materials discharged the most mercury ions, followed by bromide, iodophor, peroxide/peracetic acid and phenolic disinfectants. The quaternary ammonium compound did not discharge mercury ions above the detection limit (0.2 parts per billion) into solution.

CONCLUSIONS

A quaternary ammonium compound did not mobilize mercury ions into solution when used as a disinfectant agent for amalgam. Chlorine disinfectants mobilized mercury ions the most, followed by bromide, iodophor, peroxide/peracetic acid and phenolic disinfectants.

CLINICAL IMPLICATIONS

Dentists are obligated to be good environmental stewards and should follow practices that reduce environmental mercury release. Dental personnel should be aware that oxidizing disinfectants mobilize mercury ions into solution, which will be added to the environment if they are processed improperly. If required by processing, dental personnel should consider the different oxidizing effects of commonly used disinfectants.

Connections between polarization curves and log(a[i]/a[ref])-pe diagram

When reading papers concerning studies of corrosion of dental amalgam and its phases by means of polarization curves, one often finds it difficult to understand the reasons for the chemical reactions proposed from the form of the polarization curve. Thermodynamic data represented in the form of log(a[i]/a[ref])-pe diagrams, i.e., the logarithm of the activity of a metal or an alloy with reference to the activity of the corresponding metal ion, as a function of pe (a recalculated form of the potential), make it possible for one to determine which chemical reactions can occur on the specimen surface or in the solution within the potential difference used in the polarization experiment and to decide which of these reactions is the most probable. The hypothesis examined in this study is that a log(a[i]/a[ref])-pe diagram can be used in the interpretation of polarization curves. Potentiodynamic polarization curves and log(a[i]/a[ref])-pe diagrams were compared for the corrosion of Ag, Hg, and gamma 1 with and without Sn. It was found that there was a connection between the polarization curves and the log(a[i]/a[ref])-pe diagrams. From the composition of the specimens and the solution and by means of thermodynamic data, pe values for solid corrosion products and relative concentrations of soluble complexes at these pe values were obtained independently of the polarization curves. A much more reliable value for the nobility of metals and alloys was attained by use of the log(a[i]/a[ref])-pe diagrams than by use of the potential of the starting point of the polarization curves. It was found that pe corresponding to the potential of the starting point of the polarization curves in de-aerated synthetic saliva was obtained about two pe units before pe of the most insoluble solid compound formed on the specimen surface or in the solution.

Effect of addition of palladium on properties of Ag2Hg3 (gamma 1) phase

The effect of palladium addition on the microstructure, compressive strength, creep rate and mercury release rate of Ag2Hg3 (gamma 1) phase was evaluated. Experimental results indicated that fairly pure gamma 1 phase could be fabricated using the present trituration method. The heat treatment of gamma 1 at 90 degrees C increased porosity level, increased dimensional shrinkage, increased mercury vapour release and enhanced the formation of beta1 phase. Addition of palladium in gamma 1 slowed down the amalgamation reaction, largely suppressed the phase transition to beta1 and caused a slight shift in open circuit potential toward the anodic direction. Although the overall anodic polarization profiles did not show a significant effect of palladium, scanning electron microscopy revealed morphological differences between pure and palladium-containing gamma 1. Addition of palladium in gamma 1 also increased compressive strength, increased creep resistance, and largely reduced both mercury vapour and ion release rates. Considering overall performance, the optimal palladium content in gamma 1 seems to be in the range between 0.50 and 0.75 wt%.

Caracterização e estudo da corrosão do amálgama dentário Dispersalloy por meio das técnicas de polarização potenciodinâmica e espectroscopia de impedância

Neste trabalho realizou-se um estudo de caracterização metalúrgica do amálgama dentário Dispersalloy produzido pela empresa Dentsply Ind. e Com. Ltda., por meio da análise da sua composição química, utilizando-se a técnica espectrofotométrica de absorção atômica, procedendo-se em seguida, a análise metalográfica, utilizando-se microscopia eletrônica de varredura. A seguir, foi realizado um estudo de resistência à corrosão, utilizando-se técnicas eletroquímicas tradicionais de polarização e espectroscopia de impedância, em meio e condições que simulam a agressividade do ambiente bucal. Para isto, as amostras foram obtidas pelo processo de amalgamação mecânica, método usualmente utilizado pelos dentistas no próprio consultório, para a preparação da restauração dentária. A liga comercial Dispersalloy, representante da categoria de amálgamas de alto teor de cobre, tipo fase dispersa, foi escolhida para este estudo por ser bastante comercializada nos mercados nacional e internacional e, também por ser uma liga metálica moderna, bastante estudada, mas que ainda sofre corrosão no meio bucal.