Conceptual Confusion and Potential Advances in Athlete Burnout Research

Associations between motivational factors and burnout syndrome among elite skiers

The present research investigated the association between a series of motivational factors and burnout syndrome among elite skiers at the contextual level within the Hierarchical Model of Intrinsic and Extrinsic Motivation (HMIEM). There are 352 subjects (258 males, 94 females, aged 18 to 25 years) across five skiing events from three sport universities in this study. Four psychological scales related to motivational factors and burnout syndrome were completed by subjects. Overall, the result showed that a task-involving climate had a positive relationship with basic psychological needs, eliciting a positive pathway to autonomous motivation, and thus negatively affecting burnout syndromes. On the other hand, an ego-involving climate had a negative relationship with basic psychological needs, eliciting a negative pathway to amotivation, and then positively affecting burnout syndromes. The results underscore the intricate associations between a variety of motivational factors and athletes' burnout syndrome, supporting the need to incorporate burnout syndrome elements into the outcomes of HMIEM sequence.

Association of parent, coach, and peer motivational climate with high school athlete burnout and engagement: Comparing mediation and moderation models

The purpose of this study was to (1) examine the direct association of parent-, coach-, and peer-initiated motivational climate with high school athlete burnout and engagement and (2) evaluate whether peer-initiated motivational climate mediates or moderates the association of coach-initiated motivational climate with burnout and engagement. Athletes (n = 150) completed a survey on their perceptions of parent-, coach-, and peer-initiated motivational climate, burnout, and engagement. Findings supported the mediation model, but not the moderation model. In addition to mastery and performance climate direct effects, significant medium-to-large indirect pathways from coach mastery climate → peer mastery climate → burnout, β = -.15, 95% CI [-.333, -.009], and coach mastery climate → peer mastery climate → engagement, β = .19, 95% CI [.020, .293] were observed. Findings support that a parent, coach, and peer-initiated mastery motivational climate was associated with burnout and engagement while a performance climate was mostly unrelated to these indices of athlete well-being. In addition to direct associations with burnout and engagement, coaches also had an indirect association through peer mastery-initiated motivational climate. Findings advance understanding of how parents, coaches, and peers conjointly shape athlete burnout and engagement.

Psychometric Properties of a Modified Athlete Burnout Questionnaire in the Collegiate Athletics Setting

CONTEXT

Mental health is an important component of holistic care in athletic settings. Burnout is one of many factors associated with poor mental health, and clinicians should assess for these symptoms. The Athlete Burnout Questionnaire (ABQ) has been proposed as a measure of burnout in athletes; however, design concerns are prevalent within the scale, and psychometric analyses have resulted in inconsistent measurement properties, limiting the usefulness of the scale for accurate assessment of burnout in athletes. The objective of our study was to assess the factor structure of the Alternate Modified ABQ-15v2 using confirmatory factor analysis. If model fit was inadequate, a secondary purpose was to identify a psychometrically sound alternate ABQ model.

DESIGN

Observational study.

METHODS

Intercollegiate athletes and dancers pursuing a degree in dance (n = 614) were recruited from programs across the United States. Individuals had varied health statuses (eg, healthy, injured), scholarship support, and participated in a variety of intercollegiate sports. A confirmatory factor analysis was conducted on the modified 15-item ABQ (Alternate Modified ABQ-15v2). Exploratory factor analysis and covariance modeling of a proposed alternate 9-item scale (ABQ-9) was conducted and multigroup invariance analysis was assessed across athlete category, class standing, and student-athlete scholarship status to assess consistency of item interpretation across subgroups.

RESULTS

The Modified ABQ did not meet recommended model fit criteria. The ABQ-9 met all recommended model fit indices but was not invariant across athlete category.

CONCLUSIONS

The ABQ-9 may be a viable and efficient option for assessing burnout in the collegiate athletics setting. However, further research is needed to validate the ABQ-9 in a cross-validation study.

Examining the roles of experiential avoidance and cognitive fusion on the effects from mindfulness to athlete burnout: A longitudinal study

OBJECTIVES

Athlete burnout is a maladaptive outcome that is potentially detrimental for performance and wellbeing. Cross-sectional evidence suggests that mindfulness might be associated with athlete burnout via experiential avoidance and cognitive fusion. In the current study, we extend knowledge of these hypothesized mediational pathways using a longitudinal design.

METHODS

Data was collected at three occasions with a three-month interval. A final sample of 280 elite Chinese athletes aged 15-32 years (Mage = 19.13; SD = 2.92; Female = 130) reported their mindfulness at Time 1, experiential avoidance and cognitive fusion at Time 2, and athlete burnout at Time 3. Structural equation modelling was adopted to examine the mediating roles of experiential avoidance and cognitive fusion on the effects from mindfulness to athlete burnout.

RESULTS

We found statistically meaningful directs effects from mindfulness (Time 1) to experiential avoidance and cognitive fusion (Time 2), which in turn influenced athlete burnout (Time 3). However, the direct effect from mindfulness at Time 1 to athlete burnout at Time 3 was non-significant. The indirect effects of experiential avoidance and cognitive fusion on the effects from mindfulness to athlete burnout were significant, providing longitudinal evidence that these two variables contribute meaningfully to the mindfulness-burnout pathway.

CONCLUSION

With initial evidence for the mediating effects of experiential avoidance and cognitive fusion, future studies could consider using experimental designs to examine the potential changing mechanisms of mindfulness on reducing athlete burnout.

Cardiometabolic health profile of young girls with aesthetic professions

BACKGROUND

In the literature, professions that impose body standards for daily performance are designated as non-conventional professions (i.e. models, athletes, ballet dancers), with great emphasis on the female population. More than a job, it becomes a lifestyle to those inserted in this environment, thus, thousands of children and adolescents seek inclusion and success in these professions due to financial and media gains. Such professions are associated with several health-related risk factors. The purpose of this study was to identify and compare among physical fitness levels, cardiometabolic health markers, mental health and dietary habits in non-conventional professions.

METHODS

The sample consisted of 41 female individuals aged between 14 and 24 years, allocated into four groups, control group composed by university students (UG = 11), models (MG = 11), ballet dancers (BG = 11), and athletes' group (AG = 8). Physical fitness outcomes (cardiorespiratory fitness, flexibility, maximal dynamic strength, muscular endurance and body composition); biochemical outcomes (high-density lipoprotein [HDL], low-density lipoprotein [LDL], total cholesterol [TC], fasting glucose [FG], fasting insulin [FI], C-reactive protein [CRP]), diet quality and mental health were evaluated.

RESULTS

No impairments were observed in the health markers evaluated among groups, both for health-related physical fitness and biochemical outcomes. However, low levels of bone mineral density (BMD) were observed. Even with statistically significant differences between the groups for chronological age (p = 0.002), menarche (p = 0.004), career length (p = 0.001), height (p = 0.001), body mass index (p = 0.018), waist-to-height ratio (p < 0.001), %Fat (p = 0.020), VO2peak (p = 0.020), maximal dynamic strength of knee extensors (p = 0.031) and elbow flexors (p = 0,001) and flexibility (p < 0.001), all these values are within the normal range for health.

CONCLUSION

The professions analyzed do not seem to interfere in the physical fitness and cardiometabolic health of the girls assessed. However, we identified that exposure to these profession can impair mental health (depressive symptoms in 100% of participants) and body composition (BMD 63% of participants).

Effects of Fatigue and Grit on Club Sports Coaches

The objective of this research is to identify the level of general fatigue (FG), physical fatigue (FF) and concentration/motivation (C/M) in sports coaches. Two components of grit, consistency of interest (CI) and perseverance in effort (PE), are also assessed. The possible effects of sex, age, marital status, employment contract, work dedication and grit on FG, FF and C/M in sports coaches are examined. This cross-sectional study analyses 335 sports club coaches (21.2% women, 78.8% male) with a mean age of 29.88 (SD = 9.97) years, at a significance level of p < 0.05 for all analyses. Different aspects of fatigue were determined using the Spanish translation of the Multidimensional Fatigue Inventory-20 (IMF-20). The Grit-S scale was used to measure the ability to persevere, have passion and commit. The results indicated that men scored higher in FF, C/M and PE, while women obtained higher values in FG and CI. Non-contract coaches had higher FG, CI and PE, while coaches with contracts scored higher on C/M and FF. In conclusion, coaches with higher CI had higher FG, and high levels of PE were associated with low FG levels.

Associations Between C-Reactive Protein Levels, Exercise Addiction, and Athlete Burnout in Endurance Athletes

Regular physical activity can support long-term health maintenance, e.g., by reducing inflammatory markers such as C-reactive protein (CRP) levels. However, excessive physical activity can promote the development of both mental and physical illness as well. From a psychological perspective, excessive exercise can lead to the development of exercise addiction (EA) and athlete burnout (AB). However, EA and AB have been rarely investigated so far and it is still unknown whether they are associated with risk factors for physical diseases such as increased CRP levels. In our study, we investigated whether EA and AB in endurance athletes are associated with CRP concentrations. Furthermore, sex differences and prevalence rates of EA were investigated. Ninety-five endurance athletes participated (54.7% female, mean age = 31.8 ± 15.02 years). CRP levels were assessed by means of Dried Blood Spots. For EA and AB assessment, the Exercise Addiction Inventory (EAI) and the Athlete Burnout Questionnaire (ABQ) were used. Exercise addiction was negatively associated with CRP in men. No associations were found for women. None of the ABQ subscales (physical and emotional exhaustion, devaluation of sports, and reduced sense of accomplishment) was associated with CRP levels or with EA. Prevalence of EA was 4.2%. More than 80% of the participants were at risk for EA development. Our results suggest that EA is not necessarily associated with a higher risk for physical diseases through inflammatory pathways. However, EA is a serious mental illness that is widespread in athletes, at least at a subclinical level.

"Time for Recovery" or "Utter Uncertainty"? The Postponement of the Tokyo 2020 Olympic Games Through the Eyes of Olympic Athletes and Coaches. A Qualitative Study

The current COVID-19 pandemic has affected the entire globe, including the world of high-performance sports. Accordingly, it has been widely assumed that the thereby caused postponement of the Tokyo 2020 Olympic Games could have negative psychological impacts for aspirants, since they were halted abruptly in the pursuit of their Olympic endeavors and their daily lives drastically altered. Considering the sudden nature of the pandemic, few researchers, if any, have yet scrutinized the individual experience of Olympic aspirants. This qualitative study examines the subjective perceptions of the Tokyo 2020 Olympic Games postponement among Austrian Olympic athletes and coaches. To this end, 21 Austrian athletes (13 male, 8 female; mean age = 26.67 ± 4.93 years) and six male coaches were recruited through a criterion-based purposive sampling strategy. Five athletes had already qualified for the Olympic Games in Tokyo 2020 and 15 athletes were still in an ongoing qualification process. Data was collected by means of short written statements, elicited via open-format questions on an anonymous online survey platform. In order to infer meaning from the text, a qualitative content analysis with an interpretative focus was conducted inductively, which allowed for deriving alternative explanations of findings. The results support the notion that the Olympic postponement was experienced in myriad ways by affected participants. Three general themes comprised of several meaning units of different levels of abstraction were created from the text data. Many respondents experienced an immediate emotional reaction to the postponement characterized by confusion, disappointment and/or relief. Participants associated multiple consequences with the postponement, such as the prolongation of physical and psychological pressure, a lack of motivation, concerns about future performance, living and their occupational career, but also the opportunity for performance improvement and recovery. Respondents displayed various coping strategies, such as distancing themselves from sports, cognitive reframing, appealing for acceptance, and planning behavior. This study gleans first insights into the idiosyncratic experience of the Olympic Games 2020 postponement among Austrian aspirants. The findings could serve to assist sport psychologists in their applied practice by informing them about athletes' and coaches' needs in their Olympic preparation during the ongoing pandemic.

Sport burnout inventory-Dual career form for student-athletes: Assessing validity and reliability in a Finnish sample of adolescent athletes

BACKGROUND

The pressure of pursuing an athletic career simultaneously with education may set adolescent student-athletes at risk for sport and school burnout. Although the 2 life domains of student-athletes are strongly intertwined, so far, there has not been an instrument for investigating sport burnout parallel to school burnout. The aim of the present study was to introduce a sport burnout measure for adolescents in a dual career context and investigate its validity and reliability by using confirmatory factor analysis.

METHODS

The participants were 391 student-athletes (51% females) who filled in a questionnaire of sport burnout and background variables in the beginning of upper secondary school.

RESULTS

A 3-factor model or a second-order-factor model described the data better and gave better reliability indices than a 1-factor model. The 3 dimensions of sport burnout were shown to be separate, but closely related constructs. Evidence for convergent and discriminant validity was obtained by correlating the 3 sport burnout dimensions with depressive symptoms, self-esteem, and sport task values.

CONCLUSION

The results suggest that Sport Burnout Inventory-Dual Career Form (SpBI-DC) is a valid and reliable instrument for investigating sport burnout among adolescent student-athletes.

Composites of perfectionism and inauthenticity in relation to controlled motivation, performance anxiety and exhaustion among elite junior performers

The present study identified profiles of perfectionism and inauthenticity at baseline and tested whether they differed in the maladaptive outcomes of controlled motivation, performance anxiety, and exhaustion after a nine-month period. We purposefully selected elite junior performers (N_T1 = 219; N_T2 = 156), 16-19 years of age, from Norwegian talent development schools in sports and performing arts. The participants completed questionnaires to report their perceptions of the study variables. The results of the latent profile analysis indicated a multidimensionality of perfectionism, thereby identifying four profiles. Although our identified profiles are in line with the 2 × 2 model of perfectionism; however, the results of the mean differences between the identified profiles did not align with the 2 × 2 model's hypotheses. The elite junior performers who displayed non-perfectionism demonstrated to be the most adaptive profile. They reported the lowest level of inauthenticity and the maladaptive outcomes of controlled motivation, performance anxiety, and exhaustion. The mixed perfectionism profile, displaying high levels of perfectionistic concerns (PC) and perfectionistic strivings (PS), demonstrated to be the least adaptive profile. This profile reported higher levels of inauthenticity and was even more maladaptive than the PC dominated profile contrary to the proposed hypotheses. Findings showed that a heightened vulnerability of perfectionism seems evident in PC, independent of the reported PS levels. Because only one out of five elite junior performers were distributed in the non-perfectionism profile, the vulnerability of perfectionism might be an important risk factor to note in talent development settings.

The Role of Self-Control and Motivation on Exhaustion in Youth Athletes: A Longitudinal Perspective

The depletion of self-control competencies has been explained by an external shift in motivation, and recent research has emphasized that controlled types of motivation and self-control competencies are positively associated with exhaustion in youth athletes. Using the self-determination theory (SDT) and self-control theories, this study examined associations between athletes' motivation, self-control competencies, and exhaustion experiences throughout a competitive season. A total of 321 winter sport youth athletes (173 males, 98 females, and 50 unknown gender; aged 16 to 20 years, M = 17.98, SD = 0.89) participated in this 10-week longitudinal study, including three time points. Using Bayesian structural equation modeling, associations between athletes' reported level of motivation regulations, self-control, and exhaustion throughout their competitive season were examined in two mediation models. Constructs were associated in a conceptual and consistent manner. Simple mediation models showed credible indirect and direct effects of motivation on exhaustion via self-control within amotivation, and intrinsic, integrated, identified, and external regulation analyses. These credible effects were not replicated in the focused mediation model, when controlling for self-control and exhaustion autoregressive effects. However, direction of effects in both models was consistent and congruent. Findings consistently supported the interplay between motivation and exhaustion via self-control in youth athletes over an important competition period of the year. Autonomous and controlled motivation interacted with self-control and, respectively, predicted perceived exhaustion negatively and positively. Thus, autonomous self-control motives are important in preventing negative sport participation development over time. However, simple and focused mediation models showed different results, suggesting a necessity for accurate considerations of analytical methods chosen to investigate longitudinal mediation. Specifically, future studies need to carefully consider the time interval between measurement time points when investigating changes in dynamic psychological constructs, and include autoregressive longitudinal effects in order to predict change in levels of the outcome over time.

Cross-Sectional and Longitudinal Associations Between Athlete Burnout, Insomnia, and Polysomnographic Indices in Young Elite Athletes

Few studies have examined the association between sleep and burnout symptoms in elite athletes. We recruited 257 young elite athletes (M_age = 16.8 years) from Swiss Olympic partner schools. Of these, 197 were reassessed 6 months later. Based on the first assessment, 24 participants with clinically relevant burnout symptoms volunteered to participate in a polysomnographic examination and were compared with 26 (matched) healthy controls. Between 12% and 14% of young elite athletes reported burnout symptoms of potential clinical relevance, whereas 4-11% reported clinically relevant insomnia symptoms. Athletes with clinically relevant burnout symptoms reported significantly more insomnia symptoms, more dysfunctional sleep-related cognitions, and spent less time in bed during weeknights (p < .05). However, no significant differences were found for objective sleep parameters. A cross-lagged panel analysis showed that burnout positively predicted self-reported insomnia symptoms. Cognitive-behavioral interventions to treat dysfunctional sleep-related cognitions might be a promising measure to reduce subjective sleep complaints among young elite athletes.

The role of coach-athlete relationship quality in team sport athletes' psychophysiological exhaustion: implications for physical and cognitive performance

The present study aimed to examine associations between the quality of the coach-athlete relationship and athlete exhaustion by assessing physiological and cognitive consequences. Male and female athletes (N = 82) representing seven teams across four different sports, participated in a quasi-experimental study measuring physical performance on a 5-meter multiple shuttle test, followed by a Stroop test to assess cognitive performance. Participants provided saliva samples measuring cortisol as a biomarker of acute stress response and completed questionnaires measuring exhaustion, and coach-athlete relationship quality. Structural equation modelling revealed a positive relationship between the quality of the coach-athlete relationship and Stroop performance, and negative relationships between the quality of the coach-athlete relationship and cortisol responses to high-intensity exercise, cognitive testing, and exhaustion. The study supports previous research on socio-cognitive correlates of athlete exhaustion by highlighting associations with the quality of the coach-athlete relationship.