A meta-analysis of performance advantages on athletes in multiple object tracking tasks

This study compared the multiple object tracking (MOT) performance of athletes vs. non-athletes and expert athletes vs. novice athletes by systematically reviewing and meta-analyzing the literature. A systematic literature search was conducted using five databases for articles published until July 2024. Healthy people were included, specifically classified as athletes and non-athletes, or experts and novices. Potential sources of heterogeneity were selected using a random-effects model. Moderator analyses were also performed. A total of 23 studies were included in this review. Regarding the overall effect, athletes were significantly better at MOT tasks than non-athletes, and experts performed better than novices. Subgroup analyses showed that expert athletes had a significantly larger effect than novices, and that the type of sport significantly moderated the difference in MOT performance between the two groups. Meta-regression revealed that the number of targets and duration of tracking moderated the differences in performance between experts and novices, but did not affect the differences between athletes and non-athletes. This meta-analysis provides evidence of performance advantages for athletes compared with nonathletes, and experts compared with novices in MOT tasks. Moreover, the two effects were moderated by different factors; therefore, future studies should classify participants more specifically according to sports levels.

Validity of a motor-cognitive dual-task agility test in elite youth football players

Agility, as the ability to react rapidly to unforeseen events, is an essential component of football performance. However, existing agility diagnostics often do not reflect the complex motor-cognitive interaction required on the field. Therefore, this study evaluates the criterion and ecological validity of a newly developed motor-cognitive dual-task agility approach in elite youth football players and compare it to a traditional reactive agility test. Twenty-one male youth elite football players (age:17.4 ±0 .6; BMI:23.2 ± 1.8) performed two agility tests (reactive agility, reactive agility with integrated multiple-object-tracking (Dual-Task Agility)) on the SKILLCOURT system. Performance was correlated to motor (sprint, jump), cognitive (executive functions, attention, reaction speed) and football specific tests (Loughborough soccer passing test (LSPT)) as well as indirect game metrics (coaches' rating, playing time). Reactive agility performance showed moderate correlations to attention and choice reaction times (r = 0.48-0.63), as well as to the LSPT (r = 0.51). The dual-task agility test revealed moderate relationships with attention and reaction speed (r = 0.47-0.58), executive functions (r = 0.45-0.63), as well as the game metrics (r = 0.51-0.61). Finally, the dual-task agility test significantly differentiated players based on their coaches' rating and playing time using a median split (p < 0.05; d = 0.8-1.28). Motor-cognitive agility performance in elite youth football players seems to be primarily determined by cognitive functions. The integration of multiple object tracking into reactive agility testing seems to be an ecologically valid approach for performance diagnostics in youth football.

Multiple object tracking training affects the executive function in basketball players: the role of instant feedback

BACKGROUND

The present study aims to investigate the potential impact of eight sessions of Multiple Object Tracking (MOT) training on the executive function in basketball players. The purpose of the study was primarily to observe the effects of MOT training with and without feedback on the executive function of basketball players.

METHODS

A sample of fifty-eight participants was selected from college students enrolled in a university basketball special selection class. The participants were divided into three equal groups. The first group received MOT training with instant feedback and was called feedback group, the second group received MOT training without instant feedback and was called no feedback group, and the third group did not receive any intervention and was called control group.

RESULTS

After eight sessions of MOT training, feedback group demonstrated the best performance in the Go/No-go task and the 3-back task. After eight sessions of MOT training, there was no significant difference in test scores on the Stroop task between the feedback and no feedback groups. There was also no significant difference in test scores between the feedback and no feedback groups on the 2-back task after eight sessions of MOT training. The findings of this study suggest that MOT training can effectively enhance the executive function of basketball players.

CONCLUSIONS

MOT training was found to enhance the executive function of basketball players, irrespective of whether they received instant feedback. However, the feedback group exhibited superior improvements in the Go/No-go task and the 3-back task.

Neuromechanical proficiency in elite performance decision-making: An event-related potential (ERP) analysis

This research focuses intensively on the neural mechanisms of action selection responses in elite athletes during high-stakes decision-making. It emphasizes the neuromechanical dimensions of these processes, contrasting the responses of expert and novice players within a theoretical framework of neural information processing in high-performance contexts. Utilizing advanced EEG technologies, including event-related potential (ERP) analysis, the study captures a comprehensive view of both behavioral and neurophysiological data. The central aim is to unravel the intricate neural underpinnings that distinguish elite athletes in their decision-making strategies. Key findings highlight: (1) Enhanced accuracy and swifter reaction times in elite athletes during the action selection phase; (2) Significant neurophysiological differences, marked by pronounced N1 peak amplitudes with prolonged latencies, reduced P2 peak amplitudes with stable latencies, decreased P3 peak amplitudes with reduced latencies, and increased average PSW amplitudes. These discoveries significantly advance our understanding of the neural foundations of expert decision-making in high-performance sports. This study not only sheds light on the cognitive and neural dynamics of elite sports performance but also provides a foundation for developing training and performance enhancement techniques in various high-stakes domains.

Effects of 6-Week Motor-Cognitive Agility Training on Football Test Performance in Adult Amateur Players - A Three-Armed Randomized Controlled Trial

Agility, defined as the ability to rapidly respond to unforeseen events, constitutes a central performance component in football. Existing agility training approaches often focus on change of direction that does not reflect the complex motor-cognitive demands on the pitch. The objective of this study is to examine the effects of a novel motor-cognitive dual-task agility training (Multiple-object tracking integrated into agility training) on agility and football-specific test performance parameters, compared to agility and a change of direction (COD) training. Adult male amateur football players (n = 42; age: 27±6; height: 181±7cm; weight: 80±12kg) were randomly allocated to one of the three intervention groups (COD, agility, agility + multiple object tracking). The Loughborough Soccer Passing Test (LSPT), a dribbling test with/without cognitive task as well as the Random Star Run (with/without ball) and the modified T-Test were assessed before and after a 6-week training period. Time effects within the T-Test (F = 83.9; p < 0.001; η2 = 0.68) and dribbling test without cognitive task (F = 23.9; p < 0.001; η2 = 0.38) with improvements of all intervention groups (p < 0.05) were found. Dribbling with cognitive task revealed a time effect (F = 7.8; p = 0.008; η2 = 0.17), with improvements exclusively in the agility and dual-task agility groups (p < 0.05). Random Star Run with and without ball exhibited a time (F = 38.8; p < 0.001; η2 = 0.5; F = 82.7; p < 0.001; η2 = 0.68) and interaction effect (F = 14.14; p < 0.001; η2 = 0.42; F = 27.8; p < 0.001; η2 = 0.59), with improvements for the agility and dual-task agility groups. LSPT showed no time, group or interaction effect. The effects of change of direction training are limited to change of direction and dribbling test performance within preplanned scenarios. In contrast, motor-cognitive agility interventions result in notable enhancements in football-specific and agility tests, incorporating decision-making and multitasking components. No differences were observed between agility and agility + multiple object tracking. To achieve a transfer to game-relevant performance, coaches should focus on integrating cognitive challenges into motor training.

Gender comparison of perceptual-cognitive learning in young athletes

Elite athletes demonstrate higher perceptual cognitive abilities compared to non-athletes and those capacities can be trained. A recent study showed that differences were observed between male and female athletes in their cognitive abilities whereby male athletes showed superior perceptual abilities compared to female athletes. The purpose of this study was to investigate whether there were gender differences in athletes' perceptual cognitive learning using a 3D-MOT tracking task. The study was performed on 72 young people from 16 to 22 years of age; athlete males and females and non-athlete males and females were distributed in four distinct groups. Five sessions comprised of three thresholds were performed with each participant. Results indicated that all participants benefited from training and significantly increased their speed thresholds. Initial scores showed that male athletes achieved higher speed thresholds than any other groups. Furthermore, after 5 weeks, female athletes obtained higher speed thresholds in comparison to their non-athlete counterparts. In conclusion, engaging in sporting activity is associated with improved perceptual-cognitive abilities and learning. The results support the notion that competitive sport-related activity is beneficial for perceptual-cognitive functions and emphasizes the benefits of participating in sport-related activities for improved brain function with an even greater impact for females.

The effects of cognitive-motor dual-task training on athletes' cognition and motor performance

Background

Cognitive-Motor Dual Task (CMDT) training has been widely utilized in rehabilitation and sports practice. However, whether CMDT training can better enhance athletes' cognitive-motor performance compared to traditional single-task (ST) training remains unclear.

Method

A systematic review that complied with PRISMA was carried out (Prospero registration number: CRD42023443594). The electronic databases used for the systematic literature search from the beginning through 13 June 2023, included Web of Science, Embase, PubMed, and the Cochrane Library. After obtaining the initial literature, two researchers independently assessed it based on inclusion and exclusion criteria. Finally, the included literature was analyzed to compare the differences between ST training and CMDT training.

Results

After screening 2,094 articles, we included 10 acute studies and 7 chronic studies.

Conclusion

This systematic review shows that athletes typically show a degradation of performance in CMDT situations as opposed to ST when evaluated transversally. However, this performance decline is notably reduced following longitudinal training in CMDT, indicating the effectiveness of sustained CMDT training in enhancing cognitive-motor performance under dual-task conditions. Our study provides new insights into the application of CMDT in the field of sports training. Practitioners can utilize CMDT to assess athletic skill levels or optimize cognitive-motor performance of athletes, taking into account the specific needs of each sport.

Systematic review registration

https://www.crd.york.ac.uk/prospero, identifier CRD42023443594.

Applying the multiple object juggling task to measure the attention of athletes: Evidence from female soccer

The purpose of this study is to investigate whether the presentation of targets can affect the performance of multiple object tracking and whether the difference between female soccer players and female college students is regulated by the presentation of targets. We enlisted a group of 20 Chinese female soccer players and another group of 20 non-players to complete a multiple object juggling (MOJ) task. The mean age was 20.24 ± 1.61 years in the athletes group and 21.35 ± 1.93 years in the non-athletes group. Accuracy was analyzed to examine the disparity between soccer players and non-players, as well as the disparity between 3 presentation conditions for targets (fixed, added, and dynamic). Regarding the MOJ task, female soccer players did not outperform non-players (F = 1.84, 95% CI [-1.14 to 6.02], P = .27). The performance of tracking in fixed conditions was superior to that in added and dynamic conditions (MD = 10.33%, 95% CI [4.93 to 15.71], P < .001; MD = 9.82%, 95% CI [4.43 to 15.21], P < .001). The tracking accuracy of female soccer players was significantly higher than non-players in dynamic condition (F = 7.26, 95% CI [2.19 to 14.59], P = .01). According to the findings, experts who specialize in team sports tend to exhibit a greater attention advantage in areas that are pertinent to their field of expertise. For future studies, it will be necessary to employ MOT conditions that are more representative of sport-specific characteristics to strengthen the task ecological validity.

Prolonged cognitive effort impairs inhibitory control and causes significant mental fatigue after an endurance session with an auditive distractor in professional soccer players

BACKGROUND

Throughout official soccer matches, the presence of cheer by the crowd could be considered a critical auditive distraction that could further impair the cognitive interference control system, multiple object tracking (MOT) skill, heart rate variability (HRV), and increase mental fatigue. As the resource is not immediately replenished, the impairment of the cognitive interference control system may be delayed following a soccer game. Then, evaluating the recovery time course of the cognitive interference control system, MOT skill, HRV, and mental fatigue after prolonged tasks combining physical, endurance, and cognitive effort are essential.

PURPOSE

We aimed to analyze the acute effect of cognitive effort and auditive distractor with 24-h follow-up throughout a prolonged endurance session on inhibitory control, subjective mental fatigue, MOT skill, and HRV in professional soccer players.

METHODS

Twenty professional male soccer players were recruited (23.56 ± 3.8 years, 78.1 ± 6.9 kg, 1.77 ± 0.06 m, and 12.5 ± 5.3% body fat). The sessions were performed in a randomized and counterbalanced crossover design, divided into four experimental conditions: endurance, endurance + MOT, endurance + MOT + AD, and endurance + AD. The soccer players completed the incongruent Stroop task utilizing an eye-tracker to assess cognitive effort. MOT task, subjective mental fatigue, and HRV were evaluated before the endurance training (60%Δ of maximal aerobic velocity during 40-min) and after 30-min and 24-h of recovery. These sessions were designed to investigate the acute effect of prolonged cognitive effort (repeated MOT throughout the endurance task) and AD (constant crowd noise and coach's voice each 15-40 s, totalizing = 80 voices) on inhibitory control, MOT skills, HRV, and subjective mental fatigue after a fixed endurance training session.

RESULTS

There was no condition × time interaction for accuracy of inhibitory control (p > 0.05, ηp2 = 0.001). There was a significant condition × time interaction for inhibitory control response time (p < 0.05, ηp2 = 0.16). A higher response time of inhibitory control was found for the endurance + MOT + AD and endurance + MOT experimental sessions (p < 0.05). There was a significant condition × time interaction for subjective mental fatigue (p < 0.05, ηp2 = 0.46). A higher subjective mental fatigue was found for the endurance + MOT + AD and endurance + MOT experimental sessions (p < 0.05). There was no condition × time interaction for HRV (p > 0.05, ηp2 = 0.02).

CONCLUSION

We concluded that cognitive effort throughout a prolonged endurance session impaired inhibitory control and increased mental fatigue without promoting greater MOT skill and HRV changes in professional soccer players.

Young Basketball Players' Multiple Object Tracking Skills Were Unaffected by Stroop-Induced Mental Fatigue

We aimed to examine the acute effect of mental fatigue on young basketball players' three-dimensional multiple object tracking (3D-MOT) skills. Our participants were 12 adolescent basketball players (M age = 16.66, SD = 1.87 years; M years of practice = 2.66, SD = 1.07 years). In nine lab visits, we used visits 1 to 7 to familiarize participants with 3D-MOT, a subjective scale of mental fatigue, and a Stroop task involving mental set shifting. In the last two visits, participants performed in both experimental (EXP) and control (CON) conditions that were presented in randomized order. In the EXP condition, participants performed 3D-MOT pre- and post-60 minutes of induced mental fatigue; in the CON condition, they watched a documentary. After each condition, B participants performed the National Aeronautics and Space Administration Task Load Index (NASA-TLX). 3D-MOT performance measures were the "score" and "fastest trial score success." The response time on the Stroop tasks increased throughout the mental fatigue inducement in the experimental condition (p = .0037). The NASA-TLX responses were higher following the EXP condition than following the CON condition for mental demand, temporal demand, and performance (all ps < .05). Still, there were no significant EXP versus CON differences on the 3D-MOT performance indicators.

Reliability and Usefulness of the SKILLCOURT as a Computerized Agility and Motor-Cognitive Testing Tool

INTRODUCTION

Agility and cognitive skills are essential in sports. However, standardized agility assessment tools often lack a reactive component, and cognitive assessments are performed using computer-based or paper-pencil tests. The SKILLCOURT is a newly developed testing and training device allowing agility and cognitive assessments in a more ecologically valid setting. This study evaluated the reliability and sensitivity to changes in performance (usefulness) of the SKILLCOURT technology.

METHODS

In a test-retest (7 d, 3 months) design, 27 healthy adults (♀ = 12; age, 24.9 ± 3.3 yr) performed three trials of agility (Star Run, Random Star Run) and motor-cognitive tests (1-back, 2-back, executive function). Absolute and relative intersession and intrasession reliability was determined using the intraclass coefficient (ICC) and coefficient of variation (CV). A repeated-measures ANOVA was applied to identify potential learning effects between trials and test sessions. The smallest worthwhile change and typical error (TE) were calculated to investigate the intrasession and intersession usefulness of the tests.

RESULTS

Agility tests revealed good relative and absolute intersession (ICC, 83-0.89; CV, 2.7%-4.1%) and intrasession (ICC, 7-0.84; CV, 2.4%-5.5%) reliability accompanied by adequate usefulness from test day 3 onward. Motor-cognitive tests showed good relative intersession reliability (ICC, 0.7-0.77) with marginal CV values (4.8%-8.6%). Adequate intrasession reliability and usefulness can be assumed from test day 2 (1-back test, executive function test) and day 3 (2-back test) onward. For all tests, learning effects were observed within and compared with test day 1.

CONCLUSIONS

The SKILLCOURT is a reliable diagnostic tool for assessing reactive agility and motor-cognitive performance. Because of learning effects, sufficient familiarization with the tests is required when used for diagnostic purposes.

Effect of 3D-MOT training on the execution of manual dexterity skills in a population of older adults with mild cognitive impairment and mild dementia

Computerized cognitive training tools are an alternative to preventive treatments related to cognitive impairment and aging. In this study, the transfer of 3D multiple object tracking (3D-MOT) training on manual dexterity concerning fine and gross motor skills in 38 elderly participants, half of them with mild cognitive impairment (MCI) and the other half with mild dementia (MD) was explored. A total of 36 sessions of the 3D-MOT training program were administered to the subjects. The Montreal Cognitive Assessment (MoCA) test was used to assess the baseline cognitive status of the participants. Two batteries of manual motor skills (GPT and MMDT) were applied before and after the 3D-MOT training program. The results showed an interaction effect of training and improvement in manual dexterity tests, from the first training session until the fifteenth session, and after this range of sessions, the interaction effect was lost. However, the training effect continued to the end of the thirty-six-session program. The experimental results show the effect of cognitive training on the improvement of motor skills in older adults. This type of intervention could have a broad impact on the aging population in terms of their attention, executive functions, and therefore, their quality of life.

Specific effect of a cognitive-motor dual-task training on sport performance and brain processing associated with decision-making in semi-elite basketball players

OBJECTIVES

In this study, we aimed at evaluating the effects of cognitive-motor dual-task training (CMDT) on sport-specific athletic performance and cognitive functions of semi-elite basketball players. Further, we investigated the CMDT effects on reactive brain processing by employing event-related potential (ERP) analysis.

DESIGN

A randomized controlled trial was conducted including 52 young semi-elite basketball players (28 females mean age 16.3 ± 1.1 years) who were randomly assigned into an experimental (Exp) group executing the CMDT and a control (Con) group performing standard motor training.

METHOD

Athletes' sport-specific performance was evaluated with dribbling tests before and after a five-week training. Cognitive performance was assessed by measuring speed and accuracy in a discrimination response task. Brain activity associated with sensory processing, selective attention, and decision-making was measured through the P1, N1, and P3 components. The CMDT consisted of simultaneous execution of dribbling exercises and cognitive tasks which were realized using interactive devices located around the athlete on the basket court. Data were submitted to a mixed analysis of variance.

RESULTS

Both groups showed some improvements from pre-to post-tests, but the Exp group improved basket-specific performance by 13% more than the Con group; in addition, the cognitive performance also improved more in the Exp group (25.8% in accuracy and 5.4% response speed). According to the EEG results, training did not affect sensory processing and attentional processing which were equally increased after both kinds of training; however, decision-making processes were specifically affected by the experimental training.

CONCLUSIONS

This study confirmed the effectiveness of the proposed CMDT protocol on both sport-specific and cognitive performance of basketball players and showed that the neural basis of these benefits may be mediated by more intense decisional processing allowing faster connection between sensory encoding and response execution.

Two-dimensional and three-dimensional multiple object tracking learning performance in adolescent female soccer players: The role of flow experience reflected by heart rate variability

Three-dimensional multiple object tracking (3D-MOT) has been used in various fields to mimic real-life tracking, especially in perceptual-cognitive skills training for soccer. Yet, the learning efficiency in 3D-MOT tasks has not been compared with 2D-MOT. Further, whether the advantage can be reflected by heart rate variability (HRV) based on the neurovisceral integration model should also be examined. Therefore, we used both 2D- and 3D-MOT in a brief adaptive task procedure for adolescent female soccer players with HRV measurement. A faster tracking speed threshold of participants was found in the 3D- compared to 2D-MOT, as well as average tracking speed in the last training period of 3D-MOT. Moreover, lower low frequency (LF) components of HRV in the 3D-MOT indicated a flow experience, demonstrating the provision of more attentional resources. Therefore, we observed that adolescent female soccer players demonstrated higher learning efficiency in 3D-MOT tasks in virtual reality (VR) through a higher flow experience. This study examined the learning efficiency between the two MOT tasks in the soccer domain using evidence from HRV and highlighted the utility and applicability of 3D-MOT application.

Global trends and hotspots in research on extended reality in sports: A bibliometric analysis from 2000 to 2021

Objective

Extended reality technologies (e.g. virtual reality (VR), augmented reality (AR) and mixed reality (MR)) are gaining popularity in sports owing to their unique advantages. This study aims to analyse the progress of the application of extended reality technology in sports and reveal its cooperative features, research hotspots and development trends.

Methods

We searched the literature in the Web of Science Core Collection (WoSCC) database within the period 2000 to 2021 and conducted a bibliometric analysis. The analysis methods included statistical, co-occurrence, hierarchical clustering and social network analyses.

Results

A total of 340 articles were gathered. The literature related to its research showed an increasing trend over time. The paper collaboration rate was 90.88% (309/340 papers), and the degree of author collaboration was 3.96 (1345/340). VR was found to be the most productive journal, and Queen's University Belfast was the most productive institution. The United States, China and the United Kingdom were the three main contributors to the field. The foundational themes in sports extended reality research were (i) sports games and extended reality systems, (ii) virtual simulation devices and artificial intelligence, (iii) sports training and performance and (iv) age-appropriate physical activity, sports rehabilitation and physical education.

Conclusion

The level of author collaboration was low, but the degree of author collaboration is largely on the rise. The closeness of the collaboration between institutions and countries was also low. In addition, the subject of sport extended reality is relatively fragmented. Therefore, more research is needed to strengthen it in the future.

Specific relations of visual skills and executive functions in elite soccer players

Visual and cognitive skills are key to successful functioning in highly demanding settings such as elite sports. However, their mutual influence and interdependencies are not sufficiently understood yet. This cross-sectional study examined the relationship between visual skills and executive functions in elite soccer players. Fifty-nine male elite soccer players (age: 18–34 years) performed tests assessing visual clarity (left-, right-, and both eyes), contrast sensitivity, near-far quickness, and hand-eye coordination. Executive function measures included working memory capacity, cognitive flexibility, inhibition and selective attention. Overall, visual abilities were largely correlated with executive functions. Near-far quickness performance showed a large correlation with an executive function total score as well as with cognitive flexibility, working memory, and especially selective attention. Visual clarity and contrast sensitivity were moderately correlated with the cognition total score. Most consistent correlations with the visual functions were present for working memory. These findings present an overall vision-cognition relationship but also very specific linkages among subcategories of these functions, especially meaningful relations between near-far quickness, selective attention and cognitive flexibility. Further studies are needed to investigate the neuropsychological mechanisms accounting for the correlations and possible improvements of the executive functions by training specific visual skills.

Basketball videos presented on a computer screen appear slower than in virtual reality

Decision-making skills are essential to successful performance. To train them, coaches frequently use video replays to show their athletes how to best respond when facing specific situations. Recently, it has been shown that presenting the videos in virtual reality (VR) led to enhanced transfer, from the laboratory to the playing field, compared to when the videos were presented on a standard computer screen (CS). Interestingly, although the videos were identical, many participants informally reported that the VR videos felt accelerated compared to those they usually see on television. Here, we tested this claim by having varsity-level basketball players perform a decision-making task concomitantly with a playback speed estimation task. All participants observed the same video clips in the VR and CS conditions, and the video clips were either presented at their normal speed or had been accelerated or decelerated by 10%. Our results revealed that participants perceived the VR videos as significantly faster than the CS videos (mean perceived playback speed of 100.7% ± 2.35% and 94.9% ± 2.24%, respectively). This difference was, however, caused by the CS videos appearing slower than they truly were. Our results indicate that VR videos appear immune to the speed underestimation frequently reported with CS videos.

The structure of the superior and inferior parietal lobes predicts inter-individual suitability for virtual reality

The global virtual reality (VR) market is significantly expanding and being challenged with an increased demand owing to COVID-19. Unfortunately, VR is not useful for everyone due to large interindividual variability existing in VR suitability. To understand the neurobiological basis of this variability, we obtained neural structural and functional data from the participants using 3T magnetic resonance imaging. The participants completed one of two tasks (sports training or cognitive task) using VR, which differed in the time scale (months/minutes) and domain (motor learning/attention task). Behavioral results showed that some participants improved their motor skills in the real world after 1-month training in the virtual space or obtained high scores in the 3D attention task (high suitability for VR), whereas others did not (low suitability for VR). Brain structure analysis revealed that the structural properties of the superior and inferior parietal lobes contain information that can predict an individual’s suitability for VR.

Topical Review: The Top Five Peripheral Vision Tools in Sport

SIGNIFICANCE

This study summarizes the empirical evidence on the use of peripheral vision for the most-researched peripheral vision tools in sports.

The objective of this review was to explain if and how the tools can be used to investigate peripheral vision usage and how empirical findings with these vision tools might be transferred to sports situations. The data sources used in this study were Scopus, ScienceDirect, and PubMed. We additionally searched the manufacturers' Web pages and used Google Scholar to find full texts that were not available elsewhere. Studies were included if they were published in a peer-reviewed journal, were written in English language, and were conducted in a sports context. From the 10 searched tools, we included the 5 tools with most published studies. In our topical search, we identified 93 studies for the five most-used peripheral vision tools. Surprisingly, none of these studies used eye-tracking methods to control for the use of peripheral vision. Best "passive" control is achieved by tools using (foveal) secondary tasks (Dynavision D2 and Vienna Test System). Best transfer to sports tasks is expected for tools demanding action responses (FitLight, Dynavision D2). Tools are likely to train peripheral monitoring (NeuroTracker), peripheral reaction time (Dynavision D2, Vienna Test System), or peripheral preview (FitLight), whereas one tool did not show any link to peripheral vision processes (Nike SPARQ Vapor Strobe).

Assessing Visual Exploratory Activity of Athletes in Virtual Reality Using Head Motion Characteristics

Maximizing performance success in sports is about continuous learning and adaptation processes. Aside from physiological, technical and emotional performance factors, previous research focused on perceptual skills, revealing their importance for decision-making. This includes deriving relevant environmental information as a result of eye, head and body movement interaction. However, to evaluate visual exploratory activity (VEA), generally utilized laboratory settings have restrictions that disregard the representativeness of assessment environments and/or decouple coherent cognitive and motor tasks. In vivo studies, however, are costly and hard to reproduce. Furthermore, the application of elaborate methods like eye tracking are cumbersome to implement and necessitate expert knowledge to interpret results correctly. In this paper, we introduce a virtual reality-based reproducible assessment method allowing the evaluation of VEA. To give insights into perceptual-cognitive processes, an easily interpretable head movement-based metric, quantifying VEA of athletes, is investigated. Our results align with comparable in vivo experiments and consequently extend them by showing the validity of the implemented approach as well as the use of virtual reality to determine characteristics among different skill levels. The findings imply that the developed method could provide accurate assessments while improving the control, validity and interpretability, which in turn informs future research and developments.

A critical systematic review of the Neurotracker perceptual-cognitive training tool

In this systematic review, we evaluate the scientific evidence behind “Neurotracker,” one of the most popular perceptual-cognitive training tools in sports. The tool, which is also used in rehabilitation and aging research to examine cognitive abilities, uses a 3D multiple object-tracking (MOT) task. In this review, we examine Neurotracker from both a sport science and a basic science perspective. We first summarize the sport science debate regarding the value of general cognitive skill training, based on tools such as Neurotracker, versus sport-specific skill training. We then consider the several hundred MOT publications in cognitive and vision science from the last 30 years that have investigated cognitive functions and object tracking processes. This literature suggests that the abilities underlying object tracking are not those advertised by the Neurotracker manufacturers. With a systematic literature search, we scrutinize the evidence for whether general cognitive skills can be tested and trained with Neurotracker and whether these trained skills transfer to other domains. The literature has major limitations, for example a total absence of preregistered studies, which makes the evidence for improvements for working memory and sustained attention very weak. For other skills as well, the effects are mixed. Only three studies investigated far transfer to ecologically valid tasks, two of which did not find any effect. We provide recommendations for future Neurotracker research to improve the evidence base and for making better use of sport and basic science findings.

The Acute and Chronic Effects of Dual-Task on the Motor and Cognitive Performances in Athletes: A Systematic Review

Athletes must distribute their attention to many relevant cues during a match. Therefore, athletes’ ability to deal with dual-tasks may be different from the non-athlete population, demanding a deeper investigation within the sports domain. This study aimed to systematically review the acute and chronic effects of dual-tasks in motor and cognitive performances in athletes from different modalities. The search for articles followed all the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses (PRISMA) guidelines. The keywords used were: “dual-task” OR “double task” OR “multi-task” OR “divided attention” OR “secondary task” OR “second task” AND “working memory” OR “visual” OR “decision making” OR “gaze behavior” OR “attention” AND “sports” OR “athletes” OR “players”. The Scopus, Pubmed, and Web of Science databases were screened for studies comparing single and dual-tasks, in which the participants were athletes competing at any level, and in which at least one of the following variables were investigated: working memory, decision-making, visual search behavior, perception, anticipation, attention, or motor tasks. Articles were screened using pre-defined selection criteria, and methodological quality was assessed by two researchers independently. Following the eligibility criteria, we included 18 articles in the review: 13 on the acute effects, and five on the chronic effects. This review showed that the acute effect of dual-tasks impairs the motor and cognitive performances of athletes (dual-task cost). However, training with dual-tasks (chronic effect) improved working memory skills and attentional control. We conclude that dual-tasks acutely and chronically impacts motor and cognitive performance.

Cognitive training in elite soccer players: evidence of narrow, but not broad transfer to visual and executive function

Visual and executive functions have been suggested to be crucial in high-demanding team sports. Consequently, the interest in evaluating training possibilities of these functions is relatively high. However, easily applicable training tools, as well as evidence of their efficacy, especially in the present group of age (i.e. 17–21 years) and performance level, are scarce. Therefore, the present study aimed to evaluate the effectiveness and transfer of an essential cognitive training tool (i.e. NeuroTracker [NT] three dimensional [3D] multiple-object tracking [MOT]) in youth elite soccer players. Visual and executive functions were analyzed in a pre–post test design with an intervention and a control group after 10 weeks of training twice a week. Physical activity was included as a possible covariate. Results show meaningful benefits in the trained ability (i.e. MOT) besides small but negligible improvements in visual clarity and inhibition for the intervention group. Consequently, strict single-task NT 3D-MOT seems to have little transfer to other visual or executive functions. However, future studies should investigate the effects of sport-specific dual-task NT 3D-MOT to analyze possible multitasking adaptations further.