Effects of Preferred and Nonpreferred Warm-Up Music on Exercise Performance

Music influences performance without increasing perceived exertion during high-intensity rowing intervals: a cross-over design study

Objectives

This study assessed how exposure to slow (SBM) versus fast beat music (FBM) during high-intensity rowing intervals affects performance, heart rate (HR), lactate levels, relative perceived exertion (RPE), and recovery.

Methods

The A/B crossover design involved 21 participants performing 5 × 500 m rowing intervals under two conditions: FBM and SBM. Primary endpoint was the difference in total rowing time. Secondary endpoints included average HR, average RPE as well as rowing interval times, RPE, and HR per interval. For exploratory purpose, HR and lactate drop during the initial 5 min post completion was analyzed.

Results

Listening to FBM resulted in significantly shorter total rowing times (p = 0.009, rB = 0.59), especially during the 1st interval. The 1st interval was also significantly faster than intervals 2-5 (p < 0.001), with the greatest performance drop between the 1st and 2nd interval during FBM. Average HR was significantly lower when listening to SBM (p = 0.03, rB = 0.48), while average RPE showed no significant difference (p = 0.47, rB = 0.02). Lactate values after interval 5 were significantly lower in SBM (p = 0.05, rB = 0.41), but no significant difference was found for lactate drop (p = 0.21, rB = 0.21). However, participants exhibited a higher HR drop rate with SBM (p = 0.05, rB = 0.42).

Conclusion

FBM improved performance without increasing RPE, while SBM proved superior for recovery. Systematic customization of music based on intended training stimuli holds broad potential for the competitive sports, fitness, and health sector.

Acute effects of plyometric-based conditioning activity and warm-up music stimuli on physical performance and affective state in male taekwondo athletes

Introduction

This study assesses the acute effects of combining a plyometric-based conditioning activity (CA) with different musical stimuli during warm-up on taekwondo (TKD) performance and related psychological aspects.

Methods

In a randomized cross-over study design, 16 male TKD athletes (age: 19.94 ± 1.12 years) performed the TKD-specific agility test (TSAT), frequency speed of kick test (FSKT-10s) and its multiple version (FSKT-mult) under 7 experimental and one control condition. For the experimental conditions, participants experienced varying combinations of music selection process [self-selected (SSM) vs. pre-selected (PSM)], and music tempo [fast (F) vs. slow (S)], within preferred (PG) and non-preferred (NPG) music genre; all in the presence of a plyometric based-CA. Athletes were instructed to rate their perceived exertion (RPE) after each test and their felt arousal (FAS), feeling scale (FS), and motivation after testing completion.

Results

Findings showed that combining a plyometric-based CA with SSMPG at both fast and slow tempo improved TSAT, FSK-10s, FSKT-mult, FAS, motivation, and RPE post-TSAT greater than the other conditions (all p < 0.05). Additionally, FSSMPG combined with CA improved FS, and RPE after both FSKT-10s and FSKT-mult better than the other conditions (all p < 0.05).

Conclusion

In conclusion, listening to fast self-selected music from a preferred genre in combination with a plyometric-based CA during warm-up setups an individualized warm-up strategy and serves to improve the subsequent specific performances and the related psychological aspects in TKD athletes.

Ammonia Inhalants Enhance Psychophysiological Responses and Performance During Repeated High Intensity Exercise

Purpose: Ammonia inhalants (NH3) are anecdotally used in competition by athletes for their purported stimulant effects. However, evidence on the efficacy of NH3 is conflicting, and little to no studies to date have investigated its effect on repeated exercise. The purpose of this study was to examine the effects of NH3 on psychophysiological responses and performance during repeated high-intensity exercise. Methods: In a counterbalanced crossover design, physically active females completed two repeated high-intensity sprint trials with a different treatment: Control (CON; water) or Ammonia Inhalants (NH3; 0.33 cc). For each trial, participants completed 3 × 15s Wingate anaerobic tests (WAnT) separated by 2 min of active recovery. Prior to each WAnT, participants took a single 3-s inhale of the corresponding treatment. After the succession of each WAnT, heart rate (HR) and rate of perceived exertion (RPE) were documented. Subjective feelings of alertness and "psyched up" energy were measured using a visual analog scale. Trials were separated by at least 48 hr. Results: The results indicate that over the WAnTs, mean power (p = .017) and peak power (p = .006) were significantly higher with NH3 compared to CON despite a lack of changes in fatigue index (p = .928). HR (p = .101) and RPE (p = .897) were not different with varying treatments. Perceived alertness (p = .010) and psyched-up energy (p = .002) were significantly higher with NH3 versus CON. Conclusion: These findings provide empirical support for the use of NH3 to improve repeated high-intensity exercise performance in females that may be underpinned by alterations in subjective alertness and energy.

Don't You Worry 'bout a Thing: Harnessing the Power of Music to Improve Emotional Health in Oncology

In this editorial, Drs Peppercorn and noted neuroscientists Miller and Hasselmo comment on a recent randomized trial of music to reduce stress during infusion, noting that our understanding of the brain supports a unique and particularly effective role for music in improving mood and reducing distress for patients with cancer

The effects of pre-task music on exercise performance and associated psycho-physiological responses: a systematic review with multilevel meta-analysis of controlled studies

This systematic review summarized the studies that examined the pre-task music effects on performance aspects and quantitatively analyzed their outcomes. A systematic search for controlled studies investigating the acute effects of pre-task music on physical performance, cognitive aspects and associated psycho-physiological responses was performed through Scopus, PubMed, Web of Science and Cochrane Library databases up to 17 May 2023, with thirty studies fulfilled the inclusion criteria. Data was analyzed using the robust multilevel meta-analysis model of standardized mean difference "SMD" with 95% confidence intervals (95%CI) and prediction intervals (PI) were reported. Pre-task music induced improvements of completion time (SMD = -0.24; 95% CI = -0.46 to -0.01; PI = -0.82 to 0.35; p = 0.04), relative mean power (RMP) (SMD = 0.38; 95% CI = 0.16 to 0.60; PI = -0.36 to 1.12; p = 0.003) and fatigue (SMD = -0.20; 95% CI = -0.32 to -0.09; PI = -0.36 to -0.05; p = 0.01), moderate effects on relative peak power (RPP) (SMD = 0.53; 95% CI = 0.21 to 0.85; PI = -0.42 to 1.48; p = 0.005), and high effect on feeling scale (FS) (SMD = 2.42; 95% CI = 0.52 to 4.31; PI = -11.43 to 16.26; p = 0.03). Greater benefits were recorded in jumping performance in males than females (p = 0.01), and for active than trained subjects for completion time (p = 0.02), RPP (p = 0.02) and RMP (p = 0.03). Larger benefits were obtained for FS post-warming up than after testing (p = 0.04). Self-selected music induced greater effects than pseudo- and pre-selected for performance decrement index (p = 0.05) and FS (p = 0.02). It could be concluded that pre-task music improved psychological responses and fatigue-related symptoms associated with exercise performance enhancement.

Effects of caffeine consumption combined with listening to music during warm-up on taekwondo physical performance, perceived exertion and psychological aspects

The effects of caffeine (CAF) and music have been well documented when used separately, but their combined effects are not yet studied. Thus, the present study assessed the acute effects of combining a low dose of CAF with listening to music during warm-up on taekwondo physical performance, perceived exertion (RPE), and psychological responses during taekwondo-specific tasks in male elite athletes. In a double-blinded, randomized, placebo-controlled crossover study design, male taekwondo athletes (n = 16; age: 18.25 ± 0.75 years) performed the taekwondo-specific agility test (TSAT), 10 s frequency speed of kick test (FSKT-10s) and the multiple version of FSKT (FSKT-mult) under the following conditions: 1) CAF without music (CAF+NoM), 2) placebo (PL) without music (PL+NoM), 3) CAF with music (CAF+M), 4) PL with music (PL+M), 5) no supplement with music (NoS+M) and no supplement without music (control). RPE, feeling scale (FS), felt arousal scale (FAS) and physical enjoyment (PACES) were determined after each test. Findings showed the CAF+M condition induced better performances than other conditions for TSAT, FSKT-10s, FSKT-mult, RPE, FAS and FS and PACES post FSKT-10s (all p<0.05). Moreover, CAF+M resulted in better responses than other conditions for PACES post TSAT (p<0.05) with the exception of CAF+NoM. Likewise, CAF+M condition induced better physical enjoyment than PL+NoM, NoS+M and PL+M conditions post FSKT-mult (p<0.05). Combining low dose of CAF with music during warm-up was an effective strategy that induced greater effects than their isolated use during taekwondo specific tasks.

Modified lumbo-pelvic exercise to alleviate mild stress urinary incontinence in middle-aged females

Urinary incontinence is one of the common clinical problems of females passing middle age. Traditional pelvic floor muscle training to alleviate urinary incontinence is too dull and unpleasant. Therefore, we were motivated to purpose a modified lumbo-pelvic exercise training incorporating simplified dancing components with pelvic floor muscle training. The objective of this study was to evaluate the 16-week modified lumbo-pelvic exercise program that incorporated dance and abdominal drawing-in maneuvers. Middle-aged females were randomly assigned into the experimental (n = 13) and control (n = 11) groups. Compared to the control group, the exercise group significantly reduced body fat, visceral fat index, waistline, waist-hip ratio, perceived incontinence score, frequency of urine leakage, and pad testing index (p < 0.05). In addition, there were significant improvements in pelvic floor function, vital capacity, and muscle activity of the right rectus abdominis (p < 0.05). This indicated that the modified lumbo-pelvic exercise program can promote benefits of physical training and alleviate urinary incontinence in middle-aged females.

The Influence of Music Preference on Countermovement Jump and Maximal Isometric Performance in Active Females

Previous studies have shown that listening to preferred music during resistance and endurance exercises improves performance. However, it is unknown if these phenomena translate to short-duration explosive exercises. The purpose of this study was to investigate the influences of preferred and non-preferred music on countermovement jump (CMJ) performance, isometric mid-thigh pull (IMTP), and psychological responses to music during explosive movements. Physically active females (age 18-25) volunteered to take part in the study. In a counterbalanced, crossover design, participants completed three trials: (1) no music (NM), (2) non-preferred (NP), and (3) preferred (PV) music. Participants completed three maximal IMTP tests on a force-plate-equipped IMTP apparatus with an immovable bar. Attempts lasted 5 s and were separated by 3 min of rest. Furthermore, participants completed three single maximal CMJ attempts separated by 3 min of rest on force plates. All attempts were averaged for analysis. At the commencement of IMTP and CMJ testing, participants were asked to rate how motivated and psyched up they felt during the exercise portion using a visual analog scale. For isometric performance, listening to PM resulted in increased peak force (p = 0.039; d = 0.41) and rate of force development at 200 ms (p = 0.023; d = 0.91) compared with NP. For CMJ, there were no differences between conditions for jump height (p = 0.912; η² = 0.007) or peak power during the propulsive phase (p = 0.460; η² = 0.003). Levels of motivation were significantly higher with PM compared with NM (p < 0.001; d = 2.3) and NP (p = 0.001; d = 2.0). Feelings of being psyched up were significantly higher with PM compared with NM (p < 0.001; d = 4.2) and NP (p = 0.001; d = 2.8). Findings suggest that preferred music enhances isometric strength and increases motivation and feelings of being psyched up. Thus, PM may be used as an ergogenic aid during short-duration maximal-effort activities.

A Matter of Taste: Roles of Taste Preference on Performance and Psychological Responses during Anaerobic Exercise

Various tastes including sweet, bitter, and sour have been shown to differentially influence physiological and psychological processes. Furthermore, ingestion of bitter and sweet solutions has been shown to acutely enhance exercise performance. However, the taste is highly individualized, and it is unclear if preference influences the ergogenic potential of taste. The purpose of this study was to investigate the effects of preferred and non-preferred drink tastes on anaerobic performance and psychological responses thereof. Physically active females participated in two counterbalanced sprint trials each with a different condition: (1) non-preferred taste (NPT), (2) Preferred taste (PT). Participants self-reported taste preferences (sweet, sour, bitter) with the highest-ranked taste being used for the PT condition and the lowest-ranked for NPT. For each visit, participants completed a 15 s Wingate Anaerobic Test (WAnT) prior to (PRE) ingestion of ~20 mL of their NP or PREF taste. Following ingestion, participants completed 2 min of active recovery, rated their taste preference of the solution, and completed another 15 s WAnT. The rate of perceived exertion (RPE), motivation, and enjoyment were measured through a visual analog scale following each WAnT. Anaerobic performance measures and heart rate (HR) were also obtained at the succession of each WAnT. Findings revealed no differences between taste conditions for mean power (p = 0.455), peak power (p = 0.824), or HR (p = 0.847). RPE was significantly lower with PT versus NPT (p = 0.006). Exercise enjoyment (p = 0.022) was higher with PT compared to NPT. NPT resulted in worse motivation compared to PRE (p = 0.001) while no changes were observed between PT and PRE (p = 0.197). These findings suggest that preferred drink taste may not enhance acute performance but improves psychological responses to maximal anaerobic exercise which may have implications for improving exercise training and adherence.

A Randomized Cross-Over Analysis of the 6-Minute Step Test When Administered in Different Music Listening Conditions to Healthy Young Adults

The 6-Minute Step Test (6-MST) is a simple, inexpensive field test that is increasingly used to evaluate cardiorespiratory fitness. Whether sufficient performance is revealed by this test and the effect on it of motivational factors such as music is unknown. In this cross-sectional, randomized, and crossover research design, we aimed to analyze 6-MST performance and test outcomes in different music-related auditory conditions of non-musical/non-rhythmic [NM/NR], musical/non-rhythmic [M/NR], and musical/rhythmic [M/R]). We had 38 healthy young adults (M age = 21.21, SD = 1.21 years; 60% male) complete all tests, and we measured their number of steps taken, heart rate, blood pressure, respiratory rate, peripheral oxygen saturation, perceived dyspnea, and fatigue on the modified Borg scale. We recorded individually calculated submaximal values according to heart rate reached after three tests. The number of steps increased in the M/R condition relative to other conditions (p = 0.003), and the amount of change in perceived leg fatigue was also higher in the M/R condition (p < 0.017). Despite variable test performances in different auditory conditions, we found no statistically significant difference in cardiovascular fitness and symptoms (p > 0.05). We concluded that the 6-MST is a useful tool for assessing maximum cardiac tolerance, especially if administered while listening to rhythmic music.

The Effects of Listening to Non-preferred or Self-Selected Music during Short-Term Maximal Exercise at Varied Times of Day

In this investigation, we examined the effects of listening to non-preferred (neutral) or self-selected motivational music while warming-up for the Wingate test at varied times of day. Participants were 10 male physical education students who were randomly assigned in a counterbalanced order to perform the Wingate test after a 10-minute warm-up with (a) self-selected motivational music (WUMM), (b) non-preferred music (WUNPM) or (c) no music (WUWM) at morning (0700) or afternoon (1700) times of day. We measured their peak powers (PP) and mean powers (MP) during the Wingate test, and we measured their ratings of perceived exertion (RPE) immediately after each of the warm-up and Wingate performances. PP and MP were higher in the afternoon, compared to the morning for all conditions. Both WUNPM and WUMM conditions were associated with enhanced PP in the morning (WUNPM: p < 0.001, d = 1.82; WUMM: p < 0.001, d = 2.59) and in the afternoon (WUNPM: p < 0.001, d = 1.24; WUMM: p < 0.01, d = 1.76) compared to WUWM, with greater enhancements after WUMM (0700: p < 0.05, d = 0.77; 1700: p < 0.05, d = 0.81) than after WUNPM. After the Wingate test, participants reported lower RPE scores for the WUMM condition, compared to either the WUWM condition (0700: p < 0.001, d = 0.20; 1700: p < 0.001, d = 0.84) or the WUNPM condition (0700: p < 0.01, d = 0.10; 1700: p < 0.05, d = 0.79). Thus, a warm-up with self-selected motivational music improved muscle power and decreased perceived exertion at both time points, with greater improvements at the morning hour (0700).

Effects of Music Volume Preference on Endurance Exercise Performance

The purpose of this study was to examine the effects of preferred versus non-preferred music volume on relative power output, trial time to completion (TTC), heart rate (HR), rate of perceived exertion (RPE), and motivation during endurance rowing exercise. Physically active females (age 18−25) volunteered to participate. In a crossover counterbalanced design, participants completed two trials: non-preferred (NPV) and preferred (PV) music volume. Participants began with a rowing warm-up at 50% of HRmax for 5 min. Following this, participants completed a 2000 m rowing time trial as quickly as possible. Relative power output, HR, and RPE were documented each minute during the exercise bout. TTC and motivation levels were documented at the cessation of exercise. Results showed that there were no significant differences between NPV and PV for relative power output (p = 0.287; d = 0.17), TTC (p = 0.816; d = 0.01), and HR (p = 0.956; d = 0.08). However, RPE was significantly lower (p = 0.002; d = 0.86) and motivation was significantly higher (p < 0.001; d = 2.14) during the PV condition versus NPV. Findings suggest that while PV does not impart performance-enhancing effects during endurance exercise compared to NPV, it may improve psychological responses related to intensity and effort which could have important implications for enduring intense exercise and training.

Effects of Interactive Music Tempo with Heart Rate Feedback on Physio-Psychological Responses of Basketball Players

This paper introduces an interactive music tempo control with closed-loop heart rate feedback to yield a sportsperson with better physio-psychological states. A total of 23 participants (13 men, 10 women; 16−32 years, mean = 20.04 years) who are professionals or school team members further guide a sportsperson to amend their physical tempo to harmonize their psychological and physical states. The self-tuning mechanism between the surroundings and the human can be amplified using interactive music tempo control. The experiments showed that listening to interactive music had a significant effect on the heart rate and rating of perceived exertion (RPE) of the basketball player compared to those listening to asynchronous music or no music during exercise (p < 0.01). Synchronized interactive music allows athletes to increase their heart rate and decrease RPE during exercise and does not require a multitude of preplanned playlists. All self-selected songs can be converted into sports-oriented music using algorithms. The algorithms of synchronous and asynchronous modes in this study can be adjusted and applied to other sports fields or recovery after exercise. In the future, other musical parameters should be adjusted in real-time based on physiological signals, such as tonality, beats, chords, and orchestration.

Effects of Acute Yohimbine Hydrochloride Supplementation on Repeated Supramaximal Sprint Performance

The purpose of this study was to examine the effects of a single acute dose of yohimbine hydrochloride on repeated anaerobic sprint ability. Physically active females (n = 18) completed two separate repeated supramaximal sprint trials each with a different single-dose treatment: placebo (PL; gluten-free corn starch) or yohimbine hydrochloride (YHM; 2.5 mg). For each trial, participants consumed their respective treatment 20 min before exercise. Following a warm-up, participants completed 3 × 15 s Wingate anaerobic tests (WAnTs) separated by 2 min of active recovery. A capillary blood sample was obtained pre- and immediately post-exercise to measure blood concentrations of lactate (LA), epinephrine (EPI), and norepinephrine (NE). Heart rate (HR) and rate of perceived exertion (RPE) were measured following each WAnT. Findings showed that mean power (p < 0.001; η2 = 0.024), total work (p < 0.001; η2 = 0.061), and HR (p < 0.001; η2 = 0.046), were significantly higher with YHM supplementation versus PL. Fatigue index (p < 0.001; η2 = 0.054) and post-exercise LA (p < 0.001; d = 1.26) were significantly lower with YHM compared to PL. YHM resulted in significantly higher EPI concentrations versus PL (p < 0.001; η2 = 0.225) pre- and post-exercise while NE only increased as a function of time (p < 0.001; η2 = 0.227) and was unaffected by treatment. While RPE increased after each WAnT, no differences between treatments were observed (p = 0.539; η2 < 0.001). Together, these results suggest that acute YHM ingestion imparts ergogenic benefits which may be mediated by lower blood LA and fatigue concomitantly occurring with blood EPI increases. Thus, YHM may improve sprint performance although more mechanistic study is warranted to accentuate underlying processes mediating performance enhancement.

A Music Playback Algorithm Based on Residual-Inception Blocks for Music Emotion Classification and Physiological Information

Music can generate a positive effect in runners' performance and motivation. However, the practical implementation of music intervention during exercise is mostly absent from the literature. Therefore, this paper designs a playback sequence system for joggers by considering music emotion and physiological signals. This playback sequence is implemented by a music selection module that combines artificial intelligence techniques with physiological data and emotional music. In order to make the system operate for a long time, this paper improves the model and selection music module to achieve lower energy consumption. The proposed model obtains fewer FLOPs and parameters by using logarithm scaled Mel-spectrogram as input features. The accuracy, computational complexity, trainable parameters, and inference time are evaluated on the Bi-modal, 4Q emotion, and Soundtrack datasets. The experimental results show that the proposed model is better than that of Sarkar et al. and achieves competitive performance on Bi-modal (84.91%), 4Q emotion (92.04%), and Soundtrack (87.24%) datasets. More specifically, the proposed model reduces the computational complexity and inference time while maintaining the classification accuracy, compared to other models. Moreover, the size of the proposed model for network training is small, which can be applied to mobiles and other devices with limited computing resources. This study designed the overall playback sequence system by considering the relationship between music emotion and physiological situation during exercise. The playback sequence system can be adopted directly during exercise to improve users' exercise efficiency.

Music Augmented With Isochronic Auditory Beats or Vibrotactile Stimulation Does Not Affect Subsequent Ergometer Cycling Performance: A Pilot Study

Methods to enhance the ergogenic effects of music are of interest to athletes of all abilities. The aim of this pilot study was to investigate the ergogenic effects of two commercially available methods of music augmentation: auditory beats and vibrotactile stimulation. Six male and five female cyclists/triathletes cycled for 7 minutes at three different intensities: a rate of perceived exertion (RPE) of 11 (“light”), RPE of 15 (“hard”), and a 7-minute time-trial. Before each 7-minute bout of cycling, participants listened to 10 minutes of self-selected music (MUS), or the same music with the addition of either isochronic auditory beats (ABS) or vibrotactile stimulation via SUBPAC^TM (VIB). MUS, ABS and VIB trials were performed in a randomized order. Power output was measured during cycling and felt arousal and feeling scores were recorded at timepoints throughout the protocol. The results found the augmented MUS interventions did not influence power output with no significant main effect of trial (p = 0.44, η² = 0.09) or trial × cycling intensity interaction (p = 0.11, η² = 0.20). Similarly, both felt arousal and feeling scores were unchanged between the MUS, ABS, and VIB trials (p > 0.05). In conclusion, this pilot study indicated an ineffectiveness of the ABS and VIB to affect subsequent 7-min cycling performance compared to self-selected MUS alone.

Influence of Warm-Up Music Preference on Anaerobic Exercise Performance in Division I NCAA Female Athletes

The purpose of this study was to investigate the effects of listening to preferred versus non-preferred warm-up music on anaerobic sprint performance in Division I NCAA female athletes. Female collegiate athletes (n = 14) were recruited for this study. In a counterbalanced, crossover study design, participants completed two separate visits, each with a different warm-up music condition: preferred (Pref) or non-preferred (Non-pref). During each visit, participants completed a 3 min standardized cycling warm-up at 50 Watts while listening to Pref or Non-pref music. Following this, participants completed 3 × 15 s Wingate Anaerobic Tests (WAnTs) with a 2 min active recovery period in between tests. Motivation to exercise was measured immediately following the warm-up (WU), WAnT1, WAnT2, and WAnT3. The rate of perceived exertion (RPE) was also measured after each WAnT. Each visit was separated by a minimal recovery period of 48 h. Mean power, total work, RPE, and motivation were analyzed. Mean power (p = 0.044; d = 0.91) and total work (p = 0.045; d = 0.78) were significantly higher during the Pref music condition versus Non-pref. RPE remained unchanged regardless of condition (p = 0.536; d = 0.01). Motivation was significantly higher with Pref warm-up music compared to Non-pref (p < 0.001; d = 1.55). These results show that listening to Pref warm-up music has an ergogenic benefit during repeated sprints in comparison to Non-pref music and improves motivation to exercise. Listening to warm-up music prior to high-intensity repeated exercise may aid in optimizing performance and training in collegiate athletes.

Listening to Fast-Tempo Music During a Post-Exercise Passive Rest Period Improved Subsequent Sprint Cycling

Listening to music during active recovery between exercise bouts has been found to help maintain high levels of exercise performance; however, the effect of listening to music alone with no exercise while resting passively has not been elucidated. We examined whether listening to music during static (passive) recovery affects subsequent repeated sprint performances and/or psychological and physiological responses in healthy young males. Twelve healthy young male athletes completed two consecutive sets of 7 × 7 second maximal cycling sprints with a 30-second rest interval between the sprints. During a 15-minute interval between the sets, the participants rested passively while listening to fast-tempo (Fast, 130 bpm), slow-tempo (Slow, 70 bpm) music, or no music (Con). We assessed affective valence and arousal using the Affect Grid. The valence and arousal scores immediately after listening to fast-tempo music were significantly higher than those in the no music condition. Mean and peak power outputs during the second set after listening to fast-tempo music were significantly higher compared to those after the Slow and Con conditions (both adjusted p < .05). Moreover, the changes in exercise performances between the first and second set were significantly associated with changes in the arousal score induced by the music conditions, but not with changes in the valence score. These results suggested that listening to fast-tempo songs during passive recovery between the exercises improved subsequent repeated sprint cycling performance in physically active males. This type of rapid exercise recovery might be useful for competitive athletes, such as judo, track and fields, and swimming races.

The Influence of Music Preference on Exercise Responses and Performance: A Review

Listening to music has been repeatedly shown to have ergogenic benefits during various modes of exercise, including endurance, sprint, and resistance-based activities. Music is commonly incorporated into training regimens by recreational exercisers and competitive athletes alike. While specific modalities of exercise elicit varying physiological responses, listening to music has been shown to modulate many of these responses (i.e., heart rate, catecholamines, muscle activation) often leading to improved performance. Furthermore, listening to music during exercise may positively impact psychological (i.e., mood, motivation) and psychophysiological (i.e., rate of perceived exertion, arousal) changes, which may allow for favorable responses during an exercise challenge. However, there is mixed evidence regarding music's efficacy, which may be mediated through differences in music selection and preference. Emerging evidence has shown that, whether an individual prefers or does not prefer the music they are listening to during exercise greatly influences their ergogenic potential in addition to physiological, psychological, and psychophysiological responses to exercise. From a practical standpoint, music may be controlled by the individual through headphones but is often played communally over speakers in locker rooms, gyms, and health clubs, which may have consequences on performance and training. The following review will describe the physiological, psychological, and psychophysiological responses to exercise while listening to music and how music preference may particularly alter them. Current knowledge and new evidence on how music preference factors into enhancing performance in various modes of exercise will be further discussed, incorporating practical considerations for individuals and practitioners in real-world applications to optimize performance.

Effects of Mental Fatigue in Total Running Distance and Tactical Behavior During Small-Sided Games: A Systematic Review With a Meta-Analysis in Youth and Young Adult's Soccer Players

Background: Mental fatigue can impact physical demands and tactical behavior in sport-related contexts. Small-sided games (SSGs) are often used to develop a specific sport-related context. However, the effects of mental fatigue on physical demands and tactical behaviors during soccer SSGs have not been aggregated for systematical assessment.

Objective: This systematic review (with a meta-analysis) was conducted to compare the effects of mental fatigue vs. control conditions in terms of the total running distance and tactical behavior of soccer players during SSGs.

Methods: The data sources utilized were PubMed, PsycINFO, Scielo, Scopus, SPORTDiscus, and Web of Science. The study eligibility criteria were established based on PICOS: (i) Population: healthy youth and young adult men soccer players with regular training practice and belonging to teams with regular competitions; (ii) Intervention: exposed to mental fatigue-induced protocols only before SSGs; (iii) Comparator: control conditions (passive or active not promoting mental fatigue) before SSGs; (iv) Outcomes: physical demands (total running distance) and tactical behavior (attacking behavior accuracy, pass decision-making accuracy, and space exploration index); (v) Study design: counterbalanced cross-over design; and (vi) only full-text and original articles written in English.

Results: The database search initially identified 111 titles. From those, six articles were eligible for the systematic review and meta-analysis. Results showed no significant effect of fatigue on total running distance (ES = 0.13; p = 0.307) and tactical behavior (ES = 0.56; p = 0.079).

Conclusions: A non-significant effect of mental fatigue on total running distance and tactical behaviors performed by soccer players during SSGs was found in this systematic review.

Effect of Pre-Exercise Music on Bench Press Power, Velocity, and Repetition Volume

The purpose of this study was to examine the effects of listening to pre-exercise music on bench press performance. We recruited 10 resistance trained males (M age= 22.8, SD = 5.8 years; M height= 173.7, SD = 8.3 cm; M body mass = 81.0, SD = 18.2 kg) for this crossover counterbalanced research design. Participants completed two bench press exercise trials of (a) No music (NM), and (b) Pre-exercise music (PreExM) separated by at least 48 hours. For each trial, following a warm-up, participants listened to music or no music for three minutes. After this 3-minute period, they completed one set of bench press repetitions with maximum explosive intent at 75% one repetition maximum (1 RPM). We used a rotary encoder to measure power and velocity of barbell movement. After a 3-minute rest during which they again listened to music or no music, participants completed another set of repetitions to failure (RTF) at 75% of 1RM. Immediately following this second set of repetitions, we measured exercise motivation with a visual analog scale (VAS). We found that the PreExM condition increased mean power output (p = 0.005; d = 0.792) and barbell velocity (p = 0.015; d = 0.722). RTF were significantly higher during the PreExM versus NM trial (p = 0.002; d = 0.985), and motivation was significantly higher in the PreExM trial versus NM (p = 0.001; d = 0.932). These findings suggest improved muscle power explosiveness and strength-endurance when listening to music before a bench press exercise. From a practical standpoint, athletes who have the option of listening to music immediately prior to resistance exercise may benefit from its use.

Does warming up with different music tempos affect physical and psychological responses? The evidence from a chronobiological study

BACKGROUND

This study examined the effects of listening to different music tempos during warm-up on short-term maximal performance and psychological responses, as a function of Times of Day (TOD).

METHODS

Fifteen well trained subjects (93.75% were semi-professional soccer players) randomly performed the 30-s Continuous Jump test (CJ30) during three morning sessions (07h00) and three evening sessions (17h00), separated by 48h of recovery, each after a warmup under three different conditions: without music (NO-M), with music at 60 bpm (LOW-M), and with music at 120-140 bpm (HIGH-M). The maximal jump height (Hmax), mean jump height of all jumps (Hmean), and fatigue index (FI %) were measured during CJ30. Feeling states (FS) were determined after warm-up, and body temperature was controlled before/after warm-up, as well as after CJ30.

RESULTS

Data analysis showed that Hmax, Hmean, and body temperature were higher at 17h00 than 07h00 in all experimental conditions. Moreover, Hmax, Hmean and FS were better after warm-ups with LOW-M and HIGH-M compared to NO-M condition at both TOD, with a higher gain at 07h00. More importantly, Hmax, Hmean and FS were better after warm-up with HIGH-M than with LOW-M at both TOD, with a higher gain at 07h00.

CONCLUSIONS

Although both music tempos were beneficial, warming-up with high music tempo (120-140 bpm) is better than warming-up with low music tempo (60 bpm) for improving short-term maximal performance and psychological responses whatever the TOD, especially in the morning hours.

Sex Differences in Response to Listening to Self-Selected Music during Repeated High-Intensity Sprint Exercise

The purpose of this study was to examine possible sex differences in high-intensity exercise performance, fatigue, and motivational responses to exercise while listening to music. Physically active males and females (ages 18–24) were recruited to participate. Participants completed two separate repeated sprint exercise trials each with a different condition: (1) no music (NM) (2) self-selected music (SSM). During each trial, participants completed 3 × 15 s Wingate anaerobic tests (WAnTs) while listening to NM or SSM separated by 2 min of active recovery. Following each WAnT, rate of perceived exertion (RPE) and motivation to exercise were assessed. Relative power output, fatigue index, RPE, and motivation were analyzed. There were no significant sex differences for relative power between music conditions (p = 0.228). Fatigue index was significantly lower in females while listening to SSM (p = 0.032) versus NM while no differences were observed for males (p = 0.246). RPE was lower while listening to SSM versus NM in females (p = 0.020), but not for males (p = 0.277). Lastly, motivation to exercise increased in the SSM condition versus NM in females (p = 0.006) but not in males (p = 0.090). Results indicate that listening to SSM music did not result in superior anaerobic performance in either sex, but females responded more favorably to subjective outcomes (i.e., RPE and motivation) while listening to SSM, which may have in turn influenced indices of fatigue during the tests. These results suggest that females may respond more positively than males to exercise-induced fatigue while listening to SSM music during repeated bouts of high-intensity exercise.

Effects of Preferred and Non-Preferred Warm-Up Music on Resistance Exercise Performance

The purpose of this study was to examine the effects of listening to preferred and non-preferred warm-up music on upper-body resistance exercise performance. Resistance-trained males (ages 18-24) participated in two separate bench press trials each with a different warm-up music condition: preferred warm-up music (PREF) or non-preferred warm-up music (NON-PREF). In each trial, participants listened to PREF or NON-PREF music during a standardized bench press warm-up. Following the warm-up, motivation to exercise was measured using a visual analog scale followed by two sets × repetitions to failure (RTF) at 75% of 1-RM separated by 1 min of rest. A linear position transducer was used to measure mean barbell velocity. Rate of perceived exertion (RPE) was obtained after each set. RTF, velocity, RPE, and motivation were analyzed. RTF were significantly higher during the PREF versus NON-PREF trail (p = 0.001) while mean barbell velocity remained unchanged (p = 0.777). RPE was not significantly different between PREF and NON-PREF trials (p = 0.735). Motivation to exercise was significantly higher during the PREF versus NON-PREF trial (p < 0.001). Findings show that listening to PREF music during a warm-up improves subsequent RTF performance during bench press exercise. However, barbell velocity was largely unaffected. While perceived exertion was similar between trials, motivation to exercise was markedly increased during the PREF warm-up music trial. These findings suggest that competitors listening to warm-up music before giving maximal effort during resistance exercise could optimize performance by ensuring self-selection of their own preferred music.