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Smart pills for gastrointestinal diagnostics and therapy. Adv Drug Deliv Rev 2021; 177:113931. [PMID: 34416311 DOI: 10.1016/j.addr.2021.113931] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/31/2021] [Revised: 08/03/2021] [Accepted: 08/13/2021] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
Ingestible smart pills have the potential to be a powerful clinical tool in the diagnosis and treatment of gastrointestinal disease. Though examples of this technology, such as capsule endoscopy, have been successfully translated from the lab into clinically used products, there are still numerous challenges that need to be overcome. This review gives an overview of the research being done in the area of ingestible smart pills and reports on the technical challenges in this field.
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Marinho AT, Miranda JP, Caixas U, Charneira C, Gonçalves-Dias C, Marques MM, Monteiro EC, Antunes AMM, Pereira SA. Singularities of nevirapine metabolism: from sex-dependent differences to idiosyncratic toxicity. Drug Metab Rev 2019; 51:76-90. [PMID: 30712401 DOI: 10.1080/03602532.2019.1577891] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/11/2023]
Abstract
Nevirapine (NVP) is a first-generation non-nucleoside reverse transcriptase inhibitor widely used for the treatment and prophylaxis of human immunodeficiency virus infection. The drug is taken throughout the patient's life and, due to the availability of an extended-release formulation, it is administered once daily. This antiretroviral is one of the scarce examples of drugs with prescription criteria based on sex, in order to prevent adverse reactions. The therapy with NVP has been associated with potentially life-threatening liver and idiosyncratic skin toxicity. Multiple evidence has emerged regarding the formation of electrophilic NVP metabolites as crucial for adverse idiosyncratic reactions. The formation of reactive metabolites that yield covalent adducts with proteins has been demonstrated in patients under NVP-based treatment. Interestingly, several pharmacogenetic- and sex-related factors associated with NVP toxicity can be mechanistically explained by an imbalance toward increased formation of NVP-derived reactive metabolites and/or impaired detoxification capability. Moreover, the haptenation of self-proteins by these reactive species provides a plausible link between NVP bioactivation and immunotoxicity, further supporting the relevance of this toxicokinetics hypothesis. In the current paper, we review the existing knowledge and recent developments on NVP metabolism and their relation to NVP toxicity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Aline T Marinho
- a CEDOC, Chronic Diseases Research Centre, NOVA Medical School/Faculdade de Ciências Médicas , Universidade NOVA de Lisboa , Lisboa , Portugal
| | - Joana P Miranda
- b Research Institute for Medicines (iMed.ULisboa), Faculty of Pharmacy , Universidade de Lisboa , Lisboa , Portugal
| | - Umbelina Caixas
- a CEDOC, Chronic Diseases Research Centre, NOVA Medical School/Faculdade de Ciências Médicas , Universidade NOVA de Lisboa , Lisboa , Portugal.,c Centro Hospitalar de Lisboa Central (CHLC) , Lisboa , Portugal
| | - Catarina Charneira
- d Centro de Química Estrutural (CQE) , Instituto Superior Técnico, ULisboa , Lisboa , Portugal
| | - Clara Gonçalves-Dias
- a CEDOC, Chronic Diseases Research Centre, NOVA Medical School/Faculdade de Ciências Médicas , Universidade NOVA de Lisboa , Lisboa , Portugal
| | - M Matilde Marques
- d Centro de Química Estrutural (CQE) , Instituto Superior Técnico, ULisboa , Lisboa , Portugal
| | - Emília C Monteiro
- a CEDOC, Chronic Diseases Research Centre, NOVA Medical School/Faculdade de Ciências Médicas , Universidade NOVA de Lisboa , Lisboa , Portugal
| | - Alexandra M M Antunes
- d Centro de Química Estrutural (CQE) , Instituto Superior Técnico, ULisboa , Lisboa , Portugal
| | - Sofia A Pereira
- a CEDOC, Chronic Diseases Research Centre, NOVA Medical School/Faculdade de Ciências Médicas , Universidade NOVA de Lisboa , Lisboa , Portugal
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Cimino C, Binkley A, Swisher R, Short WR. Antiretroviral considerations in HIV-infected patients undergoing bariatric surgery. J Clin Pharm Ther 2018; 43:757-767. [PMID: 30110123 DOI: 10.1111/jcpt.12755] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/30/2018] [Revised: 06/26/2018] [Accepted: 07/25/2018] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
WHAT IS KNOWN AND OBJECTIVE With the advent of antiretroviral therapy and the resultant decrease in mortality among adults living with human immunodeficiency virus (HIV), there is now an increased incidence of obesity and obesity-related comorbidities in these patients. Bariatric surgery is becoming an increasingly common treatment option for patients who are classified as clinically obese. There are limited data regarding the use of antiretroviral therapy in patients who have undergone bariatric surgery. The purpose of this review was to evaluate the available literature regarding antiretroviral therapy and pharmaceutical properties in this special population. METHODS Literature review was performed through PubMed, utilizing search terms of bariatric surgery, sleeve gastrectomy, Roux-en-Y, HIV infection, obesity and antiretroviral. Direct medical information requests to antiretroviral pharmaceutical manufacturers were also completed. RESULTS Several case series and case reports have been published which demonstrate minimal risk of complications and maintenance of virologic suppression in the vast majority of patients. Bariatric surgery appears to be an effective mechanism for assistance in controlling obesity in patients infected with HIV; however, numerous factors may impact the safe and effective use of antiretroviral therapy. WHAT IS NEW AND CONCLUSION Due to the physiologic changes and postoperative management following bariatric surgery, evaluation of the patients' medication regimens must be considered and several factors should be taken into account when choosing the appropriate antiretroviral regimen for these patients. Furthermore, communication between the patients' surgeon, HIV provider and a clinical pharmacist should occur prior to surgery to ensure the patient is optimized to achieve the best outcome including maintaining virologic suppression.
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Affiliation(s)
- Christo Cimino
- Department of Pharmacy, Penn Presbyterian Medical Center, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania
| | - Amanda Binkley
- Department of Pharmacy, Penn Presbyterian Medical Center, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania
| | - Regina Swisher
- Department of Pharmacy, Penn Presbyterian Medical Center, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania
| | - William R Short
- Division of Infectious Diseases, Perelman School of Medicine, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania
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Yong CL, Gathe JC, Knecht G, Orrell C, Mallolas J, Podzamczer D, Trottier B, Zhang W, Sabo JP, Vinisko R, Drulak M, Quinson AM. Pharmacokinetic analysis of nevirapine extended release 400 mg once daily vs nevirapine immediate release 200 mg twice daily formulation in treatment-naïve patients with HIV-1 infection. HIV CLINICAL TRIALS 2018; 18:189-195. [PMID: 29210627 DOI: 10.1080/15284336.2017.1386811] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/18/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND VERxVE data showed non-inferior virologic efficacy with extended release nevirapine (NVP-XR) dosed 400 mg once daily (QD) versus immediate release nevirapine (NVP-IR) 200 mg twice daily in a double-blind, non-inferiority study in treatment-naïve HIV-1-positive patients. OBJECTIVE To study the pharmacokinetics (PK) of the NVP formulations and identify possible associations with demographic factors. METHODS Patients with viral load ≥1000 copies/mL and CD4+ count > 50- <400 cells/mm3 (males) and >50- <250 cells/mm3 (females) at screening received NVP-IR 200 mg QD during a 14-day lead-in and were then stratified by baseline viral load and randomized to NVP-XR or -IR. NVP trough concentrations at steady state (SS) (Cpre,ss,N) were measured up to week 48 for all participating patients. In a PK sub-study, SS parameters - AUC0-24, Cmax, Cmin, and peak-to-trough fluctuation were obtained and analyzed with relative bioavailability assessed at week 4 by plasma collection over 24 h. RESULTS Trough concentrations were stable from week 4 to week 48 for all patients (n = 1011) with both formulations, with NVP-XR/IR ratios of 0.77-0.82. Overall, 49 patients completed the PK sub-study: 24 XR and 25 IR. NVP-XR showed less peak-to-trough fluctuation (34.5%) than IR (55.2%), and lower AUC0-24, Cmin, Cmax, and trough concentrations than IR. However, no effect of SS trough concentrations was found on the virologic response proportion at least up to 1000 ng/mL. No significant association was found between NVP PK and gender, race, and viral load. CONCLUSION These data suggest NVP-XR achieves lower but effective NVP exposure compared with NVP-IR.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chan-Loi Yong
- a Boehringer Ingelheim Pharmaceuticals, Inc. , Ridgefield , CT , USA
| | | | | | - Catherine Orrell
- d Desmond Tutu HIV Foundation, Observatory , Cape Town , South Africa
| | - Josep Mallolas
- e Hospital Clínic-University of Barcelona , Barcelona , Spain
| | - Daniel Podzamczer
- f Hospital Universitari de Bellvitge, L'Hospitalet de Llobregat , Barcelona , Spain
| | | | - Wei Zhang
- a Boehringer Ingelheim Pharmaceuticals, Inc. , Ridgefield , CT , USA
| | - John P Sabo
- a Boehringer Ingelheim Pharmaceuticals, Inc. , Ridgefield , CT , USA
| | - Richard Vinisko
- a Boehringer Ingelheim Pharmaceuticals, Inc. , Ridgefield , CT , USA
| | - Murray Drulak
- a Boehringer Ingelheim Pharmaceuticals, Inc. , Ridgefield , CT , USA
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Abstract
INTRODUCTION In pharmacotherapy, drugs are mostly taken orally to be absorbed systemically from the small intestine, and some drugs are known to have preferential absorption sites in the small intestine. It would therefore be valuable to know the absorption sites of orally administered drugs and the influencing factors. Areas covered:In this review, the author summarizes the reported absorption sites of orally administered drugs, as well as, influencing factors and experimental techniques. Information on the main absorption sites and influencing factors can help to develop ideal drug delivery systems and more effective pharmacotherapies. Expert opinion: Various factors including: the solubility, lipophilicity, luminal concentration, pKa value, transporter substrate specificity, transporter expression, luminal fluid pH, gastrointestinal transit time, and intestinal metabolism determine the site-dependent intestinal absorption. However, most of the dissolved fraction of orally administered drugs including substrates for ABC and SLC transporters, except for some weakly basic drugs with higher pKa values, are considered to be absorbed sequentially from the proximal small intestine. Securing the solubility and stability of drugs prior to reaching to the main absorption sites and appropriate delivery rates of drugs at absorption sites are important goals for achieving effective pharmacotherapy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Teruo Murakami
- a Laboratory of Biopharmaceutics and Pharmacokinetics, Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences , Hiroshima International University , Hiroshima , Japan
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Chang RK, Mathias N, Hussain MA. Biopharmaceutical Evaluation and CMC Aspects of Oral Modified Release Formulations. AAPS JOURNAL 2017; 19:1348-1358. [PMID: 28681160 DOI: 10.1208/s12248-017-0112-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/03/2017] [Accepted: 06/07/2017] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
This article discusses the range of outcomes from biopharmaceutical studies of specific modified release (MR) product examples in preclinical models and humans. It touches upon five major biopharmaceutical areas for MR drug products: (1) evidence for regional permeability throughout the GI tract, (2) susceptibility to food-effect, (3) susceptibility to pH-effect, (4) impact of chronopharmacology in designing MR products, and (5) implications to narrow therapeutic index products. Robust bioperformance requires that product quality is met through a thorough understanding of the appropriate critical quality attributes that ensure reliable and robust manufacture of a MR dosage form. The quality-by-design (QbD) aspects of MR dosage form design and development are discussed with the emphasis on the regulatory view of the data required to support dosage form development.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rong-Kun Chang
- Office of Life Cycle Products, Office of Pharmaceutical Quality, Center of Drug Evaluation and Research, US Food and Drug Administrations, Silver Spring, Maryland, USA
| | - Neil Mathias
- Drug Product Science & Technology, Bristol-Myers Squibb Co., P.O. Box Bldg. 105/Room 2474, One Squibb Drive, New Brunswick, New Jersey, 08903, USA
| | - Munir A Hussain
- Drug Product Science & Technology, Bristol-Myers Squibb Co., P.O. Box Bldg. 105/Room 2474, One Squibb Drive, New Brunswick, New Jersey, 08903, USA.
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Huesgen E, DeSear KE, Egelund EF, Smith R, Max B, Janelle J. A HAART-Breaking Review of Alternative Antiretroviral Administration: Practical Considerations with Crushing and Enteral Tube Scenarios. Pharmacotherapy 2016; 36:1145-1165. [PMID: 27636237 DOI: 10.1002/phar.1835] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/10/2022]
Abstract
Selection of an appropriate antiretroviral regimen for the patient infected with human immunodeficiency virus can be challenging, as various considerations must be taken into account including viral resistance mutations, patient comorbidities, drug interactions, and the potential for drug-related adverse effects and toxicities. Treatment is further complicated when a clinical scenario arises requiring an alteration in the dosage form. Factors ranging from dysphagia to administration through an enteral feeding tube can affect decisions regarding antiretroviral dosage forms. Limited pharmacokinetic data exist regarding the alteration of antiretroviral medications from their original form. Bioavailability may vary substantially between dosage forms, which can lead to unpredictable drug concentrations. Supratherapeutic or subtherapeutic antiretroviral drug concentrations can result in increased toxicity, virologic failure, or the emergence of drug resistance. We performed a systematic literature search to review the available antiretroviral literature on the modification of solid dosage forms as well as alternative routes of administration of oral antiretroviral agents and their application to clinical practice.
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Affiliation(s)
- Emily Huesgen
- Department of Pharmacotherapy and Translational Research, College of Pharmacy, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida
| | - Kathryn E DeSear
- Department of Pharmacotherapy and Translational Research, College of Pharmacy, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida
| | - Eric F Egelund
- Department of Pharmacotherapy and Translational Research, College of Pharmacy, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida
| | - Renata Smith
- Department of Pharmacy Practice, University of Illinois at Chicago, Chicago, Illinois
| | - Blake Max
- Department of Pharmacy Practice, University of Illinois at Chicago, Chicago, Illinois.,Ruth M. Rothstein CORE Center, Cook County Health & Hospital System, Chicago, Illinois
| | - Jennifer Janelle
- Department of Medicine, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida
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Chintalapudi R, Murthy TEGK, Lakshmi KR, Manohar GG. Formulation, optimization, and evaluation of self-emulsifying drug delivery systems of nevirapine. Int J Pharm Investig 2015; 5:205-13. [PMID: 26682191 PMCID: PMC4675002 DOI: 10.4103/2230-973x.167676] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022] Open
Abstract
Background: The aim of the present study was to formulate and optimize the self-emulsifying drug delivery systems (SEDDS) of nevirapine (NVP) by use of 22 factorial designs to enhance the oral absorption of NVP by improving its solubility, dissolution rate, and diffusion profile. SEDDS are the isotropic mixtures of oil, surfactant, co-surfactant and drug that form oil in water microemulsion when introduced into the aqueous phase under gentle agitation. Materials and Methods: Solubility of NVP in different oils, surfactants, and co-surfactants was determined for the screening of excipients. Pseudo-ternary phase diagrams were constructed by the aqueous titration method, and formulations were developed based on the optimum excipient combinations with the help of data obtained through the maximum micro emulsion region containing combinations of oil, surfactant, and co-surfactant. The formulations of SEDDS were optimized by 22 factorial designs. Results: The optimum formulation of SEDDS contains 32.5% oleic acid, 44.16% tween 20, and 11.9% polyethylene glycol 600 as oil, surfactant, and co-surfactant respectively. The SEDDS was evaluated for the following drug content, self-emulsification time, rheological properties, zeta potential, in vitro diffusion studies, thermodynamic stability studies, and in vitro dissolution studies. An increase in dissolution was achieved by SEDDS compared to pure form of NVP. Conclusion: Overall, this study suggests that the dissolution and oral bioavailability of NVP could be improved by SEDDS technology.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ramprasad Chintalapudi
- Department of Pharmaceutics, Bapatla College of Pharmacy, Bapatla, Guntur, Andhra Pradesh, India
| | - T E G K Murthy
- Department of Pharmaceutics, Bapatla College of Pharmacy, Bapatla, Guntur, Andhra Pradesh, India
| | - K Rajya Lakshmi
- Department of Pharmaceutics, Bapatla College of Pharmacy, Bapatla, Guntur, Andhra Pradesh, India
| | - G Ganesh Manohar
- Department of Pharmaceutical Analysis, Nirmala College of Pharmacy, Mangalagiri, Guntur, Andhra Pradesh, India
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Pinheiro P, Marinho A, Antunes A, Marques M, Pereira S, Miranda J. Sex differences in hepatic and intestinal contributions to nevirapine biotransformation in rats. Chem Biol Interact 2015; 233:115-21. [DOI: 10.1016/j.cbi.2015.03.024] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/06/2015] [Revised: 03/10/2015] [Accepted: 03/22/2015] [Indexed: 01/01/2023]
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Florit-Sureda M, Giner-Soriano M, Antonio JMD, Carmona-Yelo A. Effective treatment of a highly active antiretroviral regimen through jejunostomy. J Chemother 2013; 26:176-9. [DOI: 10.1179/1973947813y.0000000140] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/31/2022]
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Usach I, Peris JE. Bioavailability of nevirapine in rats after oral and subcutaneous administration, in vivo absorption from gastrointestinal segments and effect of bile on its absorption from duodenum. Int J Pharm 2011; 419:186-91. [PMID: 21843608 DOI: 10.1016/j.ijpharm.2011.07.047] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/06/2011] [Revised: 07/26/2011] [Accepted: 07/30/2011] [Indexed: 10/17/2022]
Abstract
Nevirapine is a non-nucleoside reverse transcriptase inhibitor of human immunodeficiency virus type-1. The usual dosing regimen is 200 mg twice/day. Reducing the dosing frequency would significantly improve treatment adherence and quality of life of patients. To study new forms of administration, it is necessary to do pre-clinical studies and know the absorption characteristics of nevirapine in laboratory animals. However, there are no studies about its bioavailability in rats and hardly any about its pharmacokinetic. The objectives of this study were to describe the pharmacokinetics of nevirapine in rats after intravenous, oral and subcutaneous administration, to assess its absorption by different regions of the gastrointestinal tract and to evaluate the effect of bile on its intestinal absorption. Nevirapine was well absorbed after oral and subcutaneous administration and the bioavailability estimated in rats (91% for both administration routes) was practically equal to that reported in humans (91-93%) after oral administration of therapeutic doses. Nevirapine was absorbed from the duodenum, ileum and colon, while absorption from the stomach was very low. The rate of absorption was in the order: duodenum>ileum>colon>stomach. The presence of bile in the duodenum increased the absorption rate of nevirapine.
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Affiliation(s)
- Iris Usach
- Department of Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical Technology, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Valencia, Avda. V. Andrés Estellés, s/n, 46100-Burjassot, Valencia, Spain
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Affiliation(s)
- Thomas R. MacGregor
- Translational Medicine, Boehringer Ingelheim Pharmaceuticals, Inc., Ridgefield, Connecticut
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Macha S, Yong CL, Darrington T, Davis MS, MacGregor TR, Castles M, Krill SL. In vitro-in vivo correlation for nevirapine extended release tablets. Biopharm Drug Dispos 2010; 30:542-50. [PMID: 19876936 DOI: 10.1002/bdd.691] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/07/2022]
Abstract
An in vitro-in vivo correlation (IVIVC) for four nevirapine extended release tablets with varying polymer contents was developed. The pharmacokinetics of extended release formulations were assessed in a parallel group study with healthy volunteers and compared with corresponding in vitro dissolution data obtained using a USP apparatus type 1. In vitro samples were analysed using HPLC with UV detection and in vivo samples were analysed using a HPLC-MS/MS assay; the IVIVC analyses comparing the two results were performed using WinNonlin. A Double Weibull model optimally fits the in vitro data. A unit impulse response (UIR) was assessed using the fastest ER formulation as a reference. The deconvolution of the in vivo concentration time data was performed using the UIR to estimate an in vivo drug release profile. A linear model with a time-scaling factor clarified the relationship between in vitro and in vivo data. The predictability of the final model was consistent based on internal validation. Average percent prediction errors for pharmacokinetic parameters were <10% and individual values for all formulations were <15%. Therefore, a Level A IVIVC was developed and validated for nevirapine extended release formulations providing robust predictions of in vivo profiles based on in vitro dissolution profiles.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sreeraj Macha
- Drug Metabolism and Pharmacokinetics, Boehringer Ingelheim Pharmaceuticals, Inc., Ridgefield, CT 06877, USA.
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