Postforced eviction communities: The contribution of personal and environmental resources to the sense of belonging to the community

This article aims to examine the contribution of personal and environmental resources to the sense of belonging to the community among postforced eviction communities. The study included 140 participants who experienced forced eviction, and ranged in age from 20 to 79 years. Slightly more than half were women (52.4%, 74). Nearly half of the participants continued living alongside their fellow community members, while others left for different communities. The participants filled out self-report questionnaires assessing their sense of belonging, social and family support, sense of mastery, and self-esteem. We used 2 complementary instruments: the stepwise regression and the mediation model. Results indicated that the level of social and family support was found to be higher in the unified communities. Lower levels of the sense of belonging were found in the split communities. The sense of mastery was found to positively contribute to the sense of belonging. The self-esteem resource was not found to contribute to the sense of belonging, whereas social and family support was found to positively contribute to the sense of belonging. The mediation model presented an interesting finding insofar that an indirect positive association was found regarding the sense of belonging via social support within different types of communities. The discussion refers to the findings and their contribution to both theory and practice.

Children exposed to a natural disaster: psychological consequences eight years after 2004 tsunami

BACKGROUND

There is a need for studies that follow up children and adolescents for many years post disaster since earlier studies have shown that exposure during natural disasters constitutes a risk factor for poor psychological health.

AIMS

The main aim was to examine whether there was an association between severity of exposures during a natural disaster experienced in childhood or adolescence and posttraumatic stress symptoms, psychological distress, self-rated health, diagnosis of depression, anxiety or worry, thoughts about or attempted suicide, physical symptoms or daily functioning eight years later in young adulthood. A second aim was to compare psychological distress and self-rated health of exposed young adults with a matched population-based sample.

METHOD

Young adults, who experienced the 2004 tsunami as children between 10 and 15 years of age, responded to a questionnaire eight years post disaster. The results were compared to a matched population sample.

RESULTS

The results showed that the likelihood for negative psychological outcomes was higher for those who had been exposed to several types of exposures during this natural disaster.

CONCLUSIONS

The negative psychological impact on children and adolescents can still be present eight years post-disaster and seems to have association with the type of exposure; loss, physical presence and subjective experience. It is important for clinicians, who meet young adults seeking help, to be conscious about the impact as long as eight years post disaster and to be aware of possible clinical implications associated with severity of exposures.

Mental Health Among Adolescents Exposed to a Tornado: The Influence of Social Support and Its Interactions With Sociodemographic Characteristics and Disaster Exposure

Approximately 25% of youths experience a natural disaster and many experience disaster-related distress, including symptoms of posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) and depression. This study contributes to the literature by examining PTSD and depressive symptoms among 2,000 adolescents (50.9% female, 70.5% White) assessed after exposure to tornadoes in 2011. The authors hypothesized that greater tornado exposure, female sex, and younger age would be associated with distress, and that social support would interact with these associations. Analyses showed that PTSD symptoms were associated with lower levels of social support (β = -.28, p < .001), greater tornado exposure (β = .14, p < .001), lower household income (β = -.06, p = .013, female sex (β = -.10, p < .001), and older age (β = .07, p = .002), with a 3-way interaction between tornado exposure, sex, and social support (β = -.06, p = .017). For boys, the influence of tornado exposure on PTSD symptoms increased as social support decreased. Regardless of level of tornado exposure, low social support was related to PTSD symptoms for girls; depressive symptom results were similar. These findings were generally consistent with the literature and provide guidance for intervention development focused on strengthening social support at the individual, family, and community levels.

Grief-processing-based psychological intervention for children orphaned by AIDS in central China: A pilot study

A group of 124 children orphaned by AIDS (COA), who resided in two orphanages funded by the Chinese government, participated in a study investigating the efficacy of a grief-processing-based psychological group intervention. This psychological intervention program was designed to specifically help COA process their grief and reduce their psychological distress. Six sessions of group intervention focused on processing grief, reducing traumatic symptoms and psychological distress, and fostering hope about the future. At the three-month post-test, children in both groups (intervention group and control group) reported significant reduction in trauma symptoms and demonstrated similar levels of hope. However, the intervention group reported significantly increased levels of grief processing and decreased levels of trauma symptoms, depression, and threat appraisal. The intervention group also reported subjective improvements in mood, relationships, individual growth, self-confidence, and perceived social support. These outcomes supported the potential efficacy of grief-processing-based psychological intervention to reduce the psychological distress among COA.

Coping with natural disasters in Yogyakarta, Indonesia: A study of elementary school teachers

The nation of Indonesia is in an area of geological instability, resulting in repeated and severe natural disasters including earthquakes, volcanic eruptions, and tsunamis. Teachers, as adult authority figures and people with whom students spend a majority of their day, can play a major role in the lives of children in a disaster-prone community. Four years after a 6.3 magnitude earthquake that devastated a primarily rural community in Central Java, we studied 43 elementary school teachers from six primary schools who are responsible for educating hundreds of students annually. First, we examined the relationship between post-earthquake distress and teacher beliefs about efficacy and teacher-reported classroom behavior. Second, we designed a brief psychosocial skills-based intervention to reduce teacher distress and support their capacity to reduce student distress and improve student achievement. Finally, we assessed the impact of this intervention on reducing teacher distress and on improving student behavior and school performance over time. Analyses revealed a significant relationship between teachers’ depression and self-reported negative classroom behavior, a significant relationship between teachers’ posttraumatic distress and general beliefs about teacher efficacy, and a significant drop in depression and posttraumatic stress symptoms from before to after the intervention. This research extends a growing body of research on the potential role of teachers in assisting students in coping with chronic stress in their community. Lessons learned from this program of research can inform schools, school personnel, and long-term community intervention efforts following disasters across the world.

Posttraumatic reactions to an earthquake: multidimensional scaling profile analysis of adolescent survivors

The current study examined the prototypical profiles of posttraumatic stress reactions among a sample of 282 adolescent survivors of the 2008 Wenchuan earthquake in China. Based on a dimensional perspective, the results of profile analysis via multidimensional scaling (PAMS) model revealed a two-dimensional solution corresponding to four profiles: intrusion, avoidance/arousal, partial avoidance, and hyperarousal. These profiles of posttraumatic stress symptoms equally manifested across gender. In addition, the Intrusion Profile was found to be associated with more elevated psychological distress symptoms. Results are discussed with respect to the typical posttraumatic stress symptoms following the earthquake.

Reducing the Risk of Posttraumatic Stress Disorder in Children Following Natural Disasters

A significant number of children suffer long-term psychological disturbance following exposure to a natural disaster. Evidence suggests that a dose-response relationship exists, so that children and adolescents who experience the most intense or extensive exposure to the risk factors for posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) are likely to develop the most serious and persistent symptoms. Risk factors include gender, age, personality, extent of exposure to the natural disaster, amount of damage to property and infrastructure, witnessing the death or injury of others or perceiving a threat to one's own life. Knowing these factors enables various strategies to be put in place to decrease the risk of psychological disturbance following traumatic events. Reestablishing a sense of safety, security and normality is important in the aftermath of a natural disaster, and promoting social connectedness, positive family functioning and effective coping mechanisms can make children more resilient in the face of catastrophic events. This paper examines the risk and protective factors associated with the development of PTSD, and considers how schools can use this knowledge to contribute to the recovery effort and reduce the prevalence of PTSD among pupils in the wake of a natural disaster.

Response to trauma in children: An examination of effective intervention and post-traumatic growth

It is clear that exposure to traumatic events is not uncommon in childhood and adolescence and psychologists working in schools should have some training in meeting the needs of this segment of the population. This manuscript summarizes the incidence of trauma in children worldwide and then discusses interventions for trauma (Trauma-Focused Cognitive Behavior Therapy & Cognitive Behavioral Intervention for Trauma in Schools) which have been empirically validated for use with children and/or adolescents. A summary of a project (Project Fleur-de-lis) which attempted to integrate these two treatment approaches into a systematic intervention system is also discussed. In addition, the concept of post-traumatic growth, cultural considerations in working with children from diverse societies, and training needs of school psychologists are addressed.

Traumatic loss and natural disaster: A case study of a school-based response to Hurricanes Katrina and Rita

This article tracks the trajectory and impact of Hurricanes Katrina and Rita on the communities of Houston/Harris County, Texas, USA, the schools, children, and families; along with the community partnerships that addressed the trauma and upheaval. Following the influx of individuals and families who were displaced by Hurricanes Katrina and Rita into the Houston/Harris County area, expertise regarding trauma, particularly childhood trauma, coupled with an effective vehicle for the delivery of mental health services, was in great demand. As illustrated by the Houston experience, schools were a tremendous asset because of their access to students and families who needed effective trauma informed relief services. As told from the viewpoint of DePelchin Children’s Center, a nonprofit community mental health agency, this case study examines the connection between the Houston Independent School District and DePelchin that supplied an immediate, as well as long term, mental health response to the trauma experienced by the families and individuals who fled Hurricanes Katrina and Rita. The Houston area experiences have direct implications for those working in schools to service the trauma-focused mental health needs of children and their families.

China earthquake relief: Participatory action work with children

This article presents a community-focused participatory action project designed to promote children’s resilience in the early aftermath of the cataclysmic May 2008 Earthquake in Beichuan, China. Thirty children aged 7- to 15-years-old participated in the project. The project encompassed four phases that evolved from adult-directed/ initiated activities to activities that maximized children’s participation. The children were allowed to set their own pace in dealing with their feelings of trauma and loss. Initially, their activities focused on school, family, pets, nature and, finally, the earthquake. Ultimately, the children’s activities evolved into helping to rebuild their school and community. The project ended on the three-month anniversary of the earthquake with a memorial march initiated by the children to honor their deceased family members and friends. This article links participatory action projects to the International Federation of Red Cross and Red Crescent Societies’ models of psychosocial disaster recovery efforts, and argues that participatory projects provide qualitative data to evaluate their efficacy. The article proposes that school psychologists, because of their diverse training in mental health services, consultation, and research, are especially suited to using these kinds of projects to train community members, e.g. teachers and community elders, to implement them. The American Psychological Association and other humanitarian relief organizations have articulated this goal of increasing capacity in the communities of developing countries as an essential component of international disaster recovery efforts.

Strengthening classroom emotional support for children following a family member’s death

National and international organizations have identified schools as having an unparalleled potential to offer supportive services for children’s mental health needs. This article reviews research and practice related to children’s grief and specifies strategies for classroom-based interventions. In particular, school psychologists are encouraged to assist teachers in addressing the needs of children following the death of a family member. A list of resources is included to assist school psychologists in sharing critical information with teachers, preparing them to implement suggested strategies. Additionally, two ready-to-use classroom lesson plans integrate classroom discussion and activities with grief-themed children’s literature.

School-based support groups for traumatized students

After students experience a traumatic event, group counseling is an effective tool to offset the effects of grief and distress. Following a school crisis, successful school-based intervention requires interdisciplinary coordination between school psychologists, counselors, school social workers, teachers, and administrative staff. Within a short time after a traumatic event, school personnel are encouraged to create student support groups, helping students cope with intense feelings and assuring them that they are not alone. Interventions are most effective when schools pre-determine an action plan, train staff to respond with correct intervention techniques, and seamlessly transition into crisis intervention and support mode. Quick professional response through organizing and offering children’s support groups will help increase school stability and alleviate the effects of traumatic events.

Play therapy for bereaved children: Adapting strategies to community, school, and home settings

Play therapy is a highly adaptable treatment method that can be modified according to children’s ages, circumstances, and settings in which counseling occurs. Play therapy may be used in schools, community settings, and homes to help children following the death of a significant other. After reviewing basic developmental factors that affect children’s ability to comprehend the meaning of death, the article discusses the special circumstances of grief in different situations, including community-based counseling after Hurricane Katrina, school-based group play therapy following a teacher’s death, and conjoint parent-child play therapy after a father’s death in a terrorist attack. Increasing the acceptability and effectiveness of play therapy, professionals must consider and incorporate family and community traditions and beliefs. Additionally, professionals are encouraged to support teachers and parents in utilizing play-based activities to facilitate children’s expressions of grief.

Psychologists’ response to crises: International perspectives

Tragically, for many schools, the possibility of a crisis such as a natural disaster, extreme violence or a potentially traumatising threat has become a reality. Specialist input from a local psychology service is often sought at such a time. To help one service within the United Kingdom (UK) learn from the experience of other psychologists a survey was constructed and subsequently completed by 277 psychologists from around the world including Australia, Canada, France, Germany, The Netherlands, Saudi Arabia, Scandinavia, Slovakia, Switzerland, Turkey, UK, and USA. The survey provides insight into the experience of psychologists in responding to crises, for example, the nature of the crises, the extent of collaboration with others, the level of training undertaken, and the level of confidence psychologists have in this area of work. Of particular interest are the models, resources, and theories that psychologists have used and the advice that they have found helpful. A number of international comparisons are made. The survey findings suggest that collaboration is seen as highly important to effective practice. Attention is also drawn to the important work that the International Crisis Response Network of the International School Psychology Association (ISPA) is undertaking in promoting an integrated model of practice.

Strengthening Cultural Sensitivity in Children’s Disaster Mental Health Services

During and following natural or man-made disasters, relief efforts have a long history of initially focusing on basic survival needs, then restoring community stability. Disaster mental health is a relatively new aspect of relief efforts, particularly in regard to children’s needs. After reviewing objectives of major relief organizations and summarizing current research in light of practitioners’ input, suggestions and resources are offered to strengthen cultural sensitivity in school-based disaster mental health services.