Why Do People Sometimes Wear an Anonymous Mask? Motivations for Seeking Anonymity Online

Anonymous environments are more accessible than ever. As such, it is important to understand not only how anonymity can change human behavior but also why people are motivated to seek anonymity in online spaces. In four studies, we investigated differences in motivations for seeking anonymity online and their associations with related dispositional factors and online behavior. We found that some people were motivated to seek anonymity to self-express or behave toxically. Both motivations to seek anonymity were associated with low self-concept clarity and high Machiavellianism but differed in their relation to traits such as self-consciousness and psychopathy. Further analyses suggested that people selectively engage in behaviors in anonymous online environments, in line with the specific gratifications they seek through anonymity. We conclude that people seek anonymity to pursue self- or other-related goals that are otherwise more difficult or costly to pursue when identifiable.

Freedom and Constraint in Digital Environments: Implications for the Self

We evaluate how features of the digital environment free or constrain the self. Based on the current empirical literature, we argue that modern technological features, such as predictive algorithms and tracking tools, pose four potential obstacles to the freedom of the self: lack of privacy and anonymity, (dis)embodiment and entrenchment of social hierarchy, changes to memory and cognition, and behavioral reinforcement coupled with reduced randomness. Comparing these constraints on the self to the freedom promised by earlier digital environments suggests that digital reality can be designed in more freeing ways. We describe how people reassert personal agency in the face of the digital environment's constraints and provide avenues for future research regarding technology's influence on the self.

The Self-Regulation of Conformity: Mental Contrasting With Implementation Intentions (MCII)

The self-regulation of conformity has received little attention in previous research. This is surprising because group majorities can exert social strong pressure on people, leading them to overlook the pursuit of their own goals. We investigated if self-regulation by mental contrasting with implementation intentions (MCII) can reduce people's tendency to conform and facilitate their own goal-pursuit despite deviant majority influence. In a computer-based logical reasoning task, we exposed participants to a conformity manipulation, where we presented bogus diagrams showing the supposedly correct answers of a majority ingroup. Compared to participants who were not given a self-regulation strategy (Studies 1, 2, and 4) or who were in an active control group (Study 3), MCII helped participants to self-regulate conforming behavior in trying to solve the task and to independently solve the logical reasoning task, as indicated by increases in correct answers in the task. The findings suggest that MCII is an effective strategy to regulate people's tendency to conform and supports them to attain their goal despite deviant majority influence.

Becoming an older caregiver: A study of gender differences in family caregiving at the end of life

OBJECTIVES

Older people are not traditionally expected to become caregivers. For this reason, the experience of caregiving in older persons has not been explored adequately in the research on gender differences. The objective of this study was to assess the caregiver burden among older family members who care for cancer patients facing the end of their lives, in order to compare their differences according to gender (male vs. female).

METHODS

This is a cross-sectional study. A total of 102 older caregivers (aged ≥65 years) of hospice patients were interviewed through the Caregiver Burden Inventory (CBI). The sample group was divided into two gender subgroups.

RESULTS

Compared with male caregivers, the older female group reported significantly higher scores in the CBI-physical subscale (P = 0.028), and in the CBI, the overall score (P = 0.0399) confirmed by the generalized linear model (multivariate) evaluation that included possible predictors in the model. There were no significant differences in the other CBI subscale scores (time-dependent, developmental, social, and emotional).

SIGNIFICANCE OF RESULTS

Older female caregivers are at higher risk of experiencing burden and worse physical health compared with men. Further research is needed in modern palliative care to assess the role of gender differences in the experience of caregiving when the caregiver is an older person.

Impression formation via #foodporn: Effects of posting gender-stereotyped food pictures on instagram profiles

Previous studies suggested that food may have gender connotations and plays an important role in impression formation. Since sharing food images through social networks is becoming more and more common, the aim of the present study was to examine whether such images influence observers' judgements of a target. Specifically, we hypothesised that posting images of gender-stereotyped dishes would affect impression formation as a function of their congruence with the sex of the profile owner. In a 2 × 3 study, we varied the sex of the owner of a fictitious Instagram profile, and the image-set composition (masculine dishes vs feminine dishes vs neutral images). Subsequently, we measured the perceived femininity/masculinity, gender-stereotyped traits, and the desire to interact with the profile owner. Results confirmed that food pictures can communicate a profile owner's characteristics, showing that posting masculine dishes dampened women's femininity and the attribution of feminine traits to the target, irrespective of gender, and indirectly reduced participants' intention to meet both targets through the lower attribution of feminine traits (i.e., communion). Moreover, posting gender-congruent food images promoted the congruent gendered impression in observers (i.e., femininity for the woman and masculinity for the man) and in turn increased the desire to interact with him/her. These findings contribute to the understanding of the socio-psychological functions at the basis of sharing one's own eating/cooking experiences on social networks, showing that this behavior has an informational role for observers.

Self-disclosure versus self-presentation on social media

Online communication differs from face-to-face communication in multiple ways. Because of these differences, there is an ongoing debate regarding whether people disclose their true selves on social media, or whether they present an idealized or socially appropriate version of themselves. Whereas some features of online communication (such as anonymity and reduced information richness) have been argued to increase self-disclosure, there are other features (such as asynchronicity, multiple audiences, and audience feedback) that favor self-presentation. In this article, I review the literature on the effect of these five medium characteristics on whether individuals self-disclose or manage impressions on social media, and if managed, in what way.

Highly identified power-holders feel responsible: The interplay between social identification and social power within groups

Power relations affect dynamics within groups. Power-holders' decisions not only determine their personal outcomes, but also the outcomes of others in the group that they control. Yet, power-holders often tend to overlook this responsibility to take care of collective interests. The present research investigated how social identification - with the group to which both the powerful and the powerless belong - alters perceived responsibility among power-holders (and the powerless). Combining research on social power and social identity, we argue that power-holders perceive more responsibility than the powerless when strongly (rather than when weakly) identifying with the group. A study among leaders and an experiment supported this, highlighting that although power-holders are often primarily concerned about personal outcomes, they do feel responsible for considering others' interests when these others are included in the (social) self.

Men's harassment behavior in online video games: Personality traits and game factors

Online video games afford co-play and social interaction, often anonymous, among players from around the world. As predicted by the social identity model of deindividuation effects, undesirable behavior is not uncommon in online gaming environments, and online harassment has become a pervasive issue in the gaming community. In this study, we sought to determine what personality traits and game-related variables predicted two types of online aggression in video games: general harassment (e.g., skill-based taunting, insulting others' intelligence) and sexual harassment (e.g., sexist comments, rape threats). Men who play online video games (N = 425) participated in an anonymous online survey. Social dominance orientation and hostile sexism predicted higher levels of both sexual harassment and general harassment in online games. Game involvement and hours of weekly gameplay were additional predictors of general harassment. We discuss implications of online social aggression and online sexual harassment for online gaming. We also apply our findings to the broader understanding of online harassment, cyberaggression, cyberbullying, and other forms of online hostility in computer-mediated communication contexts. Aggr. Behav. 42:513-521, 2016. © 2016 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.

Divided Loyalties

Identification with a home organization may be particularly problematic for the development of interorganizational team identification. This study explores multiple conditions under which home organization identification may either positively or negatively affect the ability of members to identify with an interorganizational distributed team. The authors examine two types of team member arrangements: members of different home organizations segregated by location and members of different home organizations integrated within locations. They also examine interorganizational teams using either lean or rich communication media. Results suggest that for individuals who identify strongly with their home organizations, integrating members of different organizations within locations helps overcome barriers to interorganizational team identification. For individuals who do not identify strongly with their home organizations, using a rich communication medium enhances interorganizational team identification. Implications for future research, organizational alliance formation, and team managers are discussed.

Computer-Mediated Communication as a Channel for Social Resistance

In two studies, the authors tested predictions derived from the social identity model of deindividuation effects (SIDE) concerning the potential of computer-mediated communication (CMC) to serve as a means to resist powerful out-groups. Earlier research using the SIDE model indicates that the anonymity of virtual groups can accentuate the power differentials associated with salient social identities: a cognitive effect. The present research builds on the strategic component of the SIDE model to show that CMC can also provide a channel of social support fostering resistance. In Study 1, students were more likely to express opinions normative for their group but punishable by the out-group (faculty) when CMC was available, independent of mutual anonymity. In Study 2, the authors directly manipulated the proposed mediator, social support within CMC, and showed increased willingness to express normative attitudes against out-group interests as a function of support. These studies reveal the importance of CMC as a medium for communicating and coordinating the social support central to collective action.

Persistence in Brainstorming: Exploring Stop Rules in Same-Sex Groups

In a laboratory experiment, three-person interactive and three-person nominal groups of college students brainstormed without externally imposed time constraints. All groups were homogeneous with regard to gender. Half of the participants were instructed to continue brainstorming until they ran out of ideas (expectancy stop rule), whereas the other half were instructed to continue until they were satisfied with their performance (satisfaction stop rule). We found that interactive groups were more persistent than nominal groups in both of the stop rule conditions and thereby compensated for their usual productivity loss. We also found, as predicted, that women were more persistent in the satisfaction stop rule condition, whereas men were more persistent in the expectancy stop rule condition. This effect may be due to gender differences in self-evaluations.

Social Asymmetries and Anonymity in Dyadic Computer-Mediated Communication

Abstract. This research concerns the influence of dominant/dominated asymmetries in the perceptual structure of social categories in computer-mediated communication (CMC). We explore the connection between the cognitive effects described by the social identity model of deindividuation effects (SIDE) and the impact on perceptions of the asymmetrical status that characterizes gender groups. The study analyzes the gender perception of two interlocutors in a communication context of anonymity or visibility. The experiment was based on a standardized protocol designed to control the various declarative contents expressed during the communication. Eighty-eight participants were placed in a CMC situation with a confederate of the opposite sex. We manipulated visibility and anonymity through interlocutors’ names (provided vs. withheld) and the presence or absence of a webcam in the communication situation. In accordance with our predictions, the results suggest that gender asymmetry can modulate the cognitive effects of anonymity. The results and prospects of this research are discussed in light of work on the dominant/dominated groups and the SIDE model.

Analysing the Unequal Effects of Positive and Negative Information on the Behaviour of Users of a Taiwanese On-Line Bulletin Board

The impact of social influence causes people to adopt the behaviour of others when interacting with other individuals. The effects of social influence can be direct or indirect. Direct social influence is the result of an individual directly influencing the opinion of another, while indirect social influence is a process taking place when an individual's opinion and behaviour is affected by the availability of information about others' actions. Such indirect effect may exhibit a more significant impact in the on-line community because the internet records not only positive but also negative information, for example on-line written text comments. This study focuses on indirect social influence and examines the effect of preceding information on subsequent users' opinions by fitting statistical models to data collected from an on-line bulletin board. Specifically, the different impacts of information on approval and disapproval comments on subsequent opinions were investigated. Although in an anonymous situation where social influence is assumed to be at minimum, our results demonstrate the tendency of on-line users to adopt both positive and negative information to conform to the neighbouring trend when expressing opinions. Moreover, our results suggest unequal effects of the local approval and disapproval comments in affecting the likelihood of expressing opinions. The impact of neighbouring disapproval densities was stronger than that of neighbouring approval densities on inducing subsequent disapproval relative to approval comments. However, our results suggest no effects of global social influence on subsequent opinion expression.

The collective origins of valued originality: a social identity approach to creativity

Prevailing approaches to individual and group creativity have focused on personal factors that contribute to creative behavior (e.g., personality, intelligence, motivation), and the processes of behaving creatively and appreciating creativity are understood to be largely unrelated. This article uses social identity and self-categorization theories as the basis for a model of creativity that addresses these lacunae by emphasizing the role that groups play in stimulating and shaping creative acts and in determining the reception they are given. We argue that shared social identity (or lack of it) motivates individuals to rise to particular creative challenges and provides a basis for certain forms of creativity to be recognized (or disregarded). Empirical work informed by this approach supports eight novel hypotheses relating to individual, group, and systemic dimensions of the creativity process. These also provide an agenda for future creativity research.

An Empirical Investigation of the Effects of Gender and Quantity of Search Results on Web-Based Impression Formation

The ease and convenience of Web-based search engines has fundamentally changed information gathering and use and given rise to tangible and significant effects in the way we form impressions of others. This study explores how the quantity of relevant search engine results affects individuals’ selection of potential partners in a team project scenario. Experimental data reveals a distinct bias favoring potential partners associated with many results as compared to those with few results, even when the results are devoid of meaningful individuating value, assuming the proportion of social media occurrences is held constant. By contrast, there was no evidence of effect from gender stereotyping as would be expected due to social categorization tendencies in contexts that provide minimal discriminating information such as the experimental scenario. Indeed there was only minimal evidence of gender effect in interaction with the result quantity factor, further highlighting the relative predominance of the latter. Findings help underscore the value of managing one’s online identity and hold implications for professionals, academics and individuals concerned with how the Web affects the way we form impressions of others.

Newcomer Conformity

The present research is the first to examine the impact of self-construal on newcomers’ motivation to conform with the goals of a novel group. We argue that when social identity (i.e., individuals’ concern for a specific group) has not yet been developed, newcomers rely on self-construal (i.e., individuals’ chronic concern for ingroups and connectedness with others in general) to derive norms for group-serving vs. self-serving behavior. Results of an experiment (N = 157) supported this prediction: Self-construal moderated the relationship between group goals and individual goals (cognitive conformity) as well as the relationship between group goals and members’ effort (behavioral conformity). Specifically, low independent and high interdependent self-construal was associated with greater cognitive and behavioral alignment of the self with the group compared to high independent and low interdependent self-construal. Findings are discussed regarding the role of self-construal as a precedent of conformity.

Cultural Stereotyping, Convergent Expectations, and Performance in Cross-Cultural Collaborations

A laboratory experiment tested the hypothesis that under certain conditions, convergent expectations based on cultural stereotypes may have coordination and performance benefits in cross-cultural collaborations. One hundred and fourteen participants (58 of White European and 56 of Asian descent) worked on a collaborative learning task in same-sex dyads. The independent variables were the dyad’s cultural composition (similar vs. diverse) and whether members could communicate using instant messaging (yes or no). The results showed that (a) when members could not communicate, culturally diverse dyads used cultural stereotypes for task assignments, which resulted in fewer coordination errors and better collective performance when compared to culturally similar dyads; (b) when members could communicate, culturally similar dyads performed as well as culturally diverse dyads; and (c) the influence of cultural stereotypes on task assignments persisted for culturally diverse dyads. There was no support for the hypothesis that culturally diverse dyads would experience more negative socioemotional reactions than culturally similar dyads.

Individuality and social influence in groups: inductive and deductive routes to group identity

A distinction between forms of social identity formation in small interactive groups is investigated. In groups in which a common identity is available or given, norms for individual behavior may be deduced from group properties (deductive identity). In groups in which interpersonal relations are central, a group identity may also be induced from individual group members' contributions, making individuality and individual distinctiveness a defining feature of the group (inductive identity). Two studies examined the prediction that depersonalization produced by anonymity has opposite effects for groups in which social identity has been induced or deduced. Results confirmed the prediction that depersonalization increases social influence in groups whose identity was more deductive. In contrast, depersonalization decreases social influence in inductive identity groups. Implications for the role of social identity in small groups are discussed. ((c) 2005 APA, all rights reserved).