Sex buffers intimates against the negative implications of attachment insecurity

Darling, Come Lay with Me or Talk with Me: Perceived Mattering and the Complementary Association between Sex and Communication within Marital Relationships

According to the theories on interpersonal mattering, reciprocal interactions and mutual engagements facilitate the formation of interpersonal mattering within relationships. However, the theoretical framework on mattering has rarely been applied to understand the roles of sexual and verbal exchanges within intimate relationships. To fill this research gap, the authors proposed that heightened perception of mattering captures the common mechanism through which both frequent sex and communication predict greater marital satisfaction. Building on this perspective, the study examined whether frequent sex and communication can compensate for the other in predicting marital satisfaction by sustaining the sense of mattering between spouses. Two survey studies were conducted using cross-cultural online samples (Study 1: Nkorean = 307 and NAmerican = 277) and a community sample of married dyads (Study 2: N = 286). Across these samples, the results demonstrated that the perceived sense of mattering to spouse mediated the effects of both sexual frequency and communication quantity on the couples' overall satisfaction with their marriage. Moreover, the results of the moderated mediation analyses supported the hypothesis that sexual frequency and communication quantity can moderate the effects of the other on marital satisfaction by providing a buffer on the couples' perceived sense of mattering to spouse.

Why do you have sex and does it make you feel better? Integrating attachment theory, sexual motives, and sexual well-being in long-term couples

Attachment theory postulates that three behavioral systems are central to optimal couple functioning: attachment, caregiving, and sex. However, few studies have examined the concurrent contribution of these systems to understand sexual well-being. This daily diary study examined the intermediary role of attachment- and caregiving-related sexual motives in the associations linking attachment insecurities and positive and negative emotions during sexual activity in 149 long-term mixed-gender/sex couples. Multilevel analyses revealed that individuals higher in attachment avoidance endorsed less caregiving sexual motives, which was associated with their own more negative emotional experience during sexual activity. Individuals higher in attachment anxiety endorsed more attachment sexual motives, which was associated with their own and their partner's more negative emotional experience during sex. However, individuals higher in attachment anxiety also concurrently endorsed more caregiving sexual motives, which predicted their own and their partner's more positive emotional experience during sex. Overall, the findings support the associations between the attachment, caregiving, and sexual behavioral systems and suggest that engaging in sex as a way to care for one's partner might foster sexual well-being in long-term couples.

Evidence of a Bidirectional Association Between Daily Sexual and Relationship Satisfaction That Is Moderated by Daily Stress

Prior research provides mixed evidence regarding the direction of the association between sexual and marital satisfaction. Whereas some studies suggest a bidirectional association, other studies fail to document one direction or the other. The current investigation used a 12-day diary study of 287 married individuals to clarify the nature of this association. Results from time-lagged mixed modeling revealed a significant positive bidirectional association. Both higher global sexual satisfaction one day and satisfaction with sex that occurred that day predicted higher marital satisfaction the next day; likewise, higher marital satisfaction one day significantly predicted higher global sexual satisfaction the next day and higher satisfaction with sex that occurred the next day. Both associations remained significant after controlling for participant's gender/sex, neuroticism, attachment insecurity, self-esteem, stress, perceived childhood unpredictability and harshness, age of first intercourse, construal level, age, and length of marriage. We also explored whether these covariates moderated either direction of the association. Daily stress was the most reliable moderator, with three of the four interactions tested remaining significant after Bonferroni corrections. The bidirectional association between global sexual and marital satisfaction and the positive association between satisfaction with sex that occurred that day and marital satisfaction the next day were significantly stronger when individuals experienced high versus low stress. Although the exploratory nature of all moderation analyses suggests they should be replicated before drawing strong conclusions, these findings highlight the importance of sexual satisfaction to marital satisfaction and vice versa and point to the power of stress in strengthening these associations.

Attachment Orientations, Sexual Behavior, and Relationship Satisfaction in Young, Mixed-Sex Couples: A Dyadic Approach

We examined if and to what degree attachment orientations of both partners moderate the link between different behavioral characteristics of the sexual relationship and relationship satisfaction in the early stages of romantic attachment. A sample of 126 young, mixed-sex couples (N = 252, mean age = 23.3, SD = 2.4; average relationship duration = 1.9 years, SD = 0.9) filled out questionnaires assessing attachment anxiety and avoidance, a range of intimate and sexual couple behaviors, and relationship satisfaction. Exploratory factor analyses revealed two behavioral factors: Intimate behavior (kissing, cuddling) and sexual behavior (oral sex, coitus). Although frequency of sexual behavior was not directly associated with relationship satisfaction, we found a significant positive interaction with anxious attachment, indicating that higher frequencies of sexual behavior were associated with greater self-reported relationship satisfaction in more anxiously attached individuals. Exploration of the effects of intimate behaviors on relationship satisfaction revealed significant positive associations as well, but, unexpectedly, only for avoidantly attached individuals. These results call for a dyadic and differentiated approach to the study of sexuality in couples and are in line with prior findings that the impact of intimate and sexual behaviors on relationship satisfaction varies depending on attachment orientations.

Psychological Distress in Erectile Dysfunction: The Moderating Role of Attachment

Introduction

In clinical consultations, men with erectile dysfunction do not always express personal, sexual, and interpersonal concerns.

Aim

We explore whether the attenuated impact of erectile dysfunction may be explained by a regulation of negative affect that causes activation of the attachment system.

Methods

The study sample consisted of 69 men diagnosed with erectile dysfunction, mean (SD) age 56 (10.83) years. Participants completed self-reported questionnaires to assess erectile dysfunction severity, attachment style, sexual satisfaction, relationship satisfaction, and psychological symptoms.

Main Outcome Measure

The moderating role of attachment between erectile dysfunction and sexual satisfaction, relationship satisfaction, and psychological distress was evaluated using multiple linear regression and moderation analysis.

Results

All men in the sample had high attachment avoidance, distributed between the dismissive-avoidant (69.6%) and fearful-avoidant (30.4%) substyles, but low levels of psychological symptoms. Despite their erectile dysfunction, 27 patients (39.1%) rated their sexual life as satisfactory, and 46 (66.7%) rated their relationship with their partner as satisfactory. Men with fearful-avoidant attachment reported feeling more sexual desire and less sexual satisfaction than men with dismissive-avoidant attachment. Multiple linear regression analysis showed that sexual satisfaction variance was explained by erectile dysfunction severity, attachment anxiety, and relationship satisfaction scores. Moderation analysis showed that attachment anxiety, but not relationship satisfaction, moderated the impact of erectile dysfunction on sexual satisfaction.

Conclusion

The avoidance dimension of attachment, which tends to be high in patients with erectile dysfunction, involves deactivation of the sexual system in an effort to minimize the emotional distress associated with erectile dysfunction, which damages sexual and relationship intimacy and delays the decision to obtain professional help. The presence of high attachment avoidance and the moderating value of attachment anxiety allow us to propose specific treatments for these men.

Maestre-Lorén F, Castillo-Garayoa JA, López-i-Martín X, et al. Psychological Distress in Erectile Dysfunction: The Moderating Role of Attachment. Sex Med 2021;9:100436.

Sextech Use as a Potential Mental Health Reprieve: The Role of Anxiety, Depression, and Loneliness in Seeking Sex Online

Depression, anxiety, and loneliness have long been recognized as global mental health concerns. To temporarily relieve psychological distress, self-soothing behavior is common, including engagement in sexual behaviors that are linked to positive mental well-being. Considering the COVID-19 pandemic further exacerbated many mental health ailments alongside physical distancing regulations, we specifically examined online sexual behavior via the use of emergent digital sexual technologies, or sextech. In a 2019 study of 8004 American adults, we assessed whether people experiencing higher anxiety, depression, and/or loneliness were more likely to engage in sextech use. Furthermore, we examined whether anxiety or depression mediated the association between loneliness and sextech use, as loneliness is one contributor to anxiety and depression. People with higher anxiety and depression were more likely to engage in sextech. However, those who were more lonely were less likely to engage with sextech, suggesting the aforementioned patterns were not due to lack of social connection. Our findings suggest people with mental health struggles may be drawn to interactive, digital forms of sexual behavior as a means of alleviating symptoms through distraction or self-soothing. This insight offers an important pathway for expanding the scope of mental health interventions, particularly as technology becomes increasingly prevalent and accessible in everyday life.

Sexual Passion and Attachment: Sexual Passion Style as a Mediator between Attachment Insecurity and Sexual Satisfaction in Committed Relationships

Attachment insecurity is negatively linked to sexual satisfaction in committed relationships, but we have much to learn about the specific mechanisms underlying this connection. With a sample of 1,421 participants from Amazon's Mechanical Turk, we used structural equation modeling to explore whether sexual passion expression (harmonious, obsessive, inhibited) might mediate the association between insecure attachment (anxious and avoidant) and sexual satisfaction. Anxious attachment was linked to lower harmonious sexual passion, higher obsessive sexual passion, and higher inhibited sexual passion. Attachment avoidance was linked to lower harmonious sexual passion and higher inhibited sexual passion. Harmonious sexual passion was strongly linked to higher sexual satisfaction, and inhibited sexual passion was negatively linked to sexual satisfaction (for men). Sexual passion expression variables fully mediated the associations between attachment insecurity and sexual satisfaction. This study highlights that the expression of sexual passion may be important when considering the connection between attachment and sexual satisfaction.

A National Longitudinal Study of Partnered Sex, Relationship Quality, and Mental Health Among Older Adults

OBJECTIVES

We worked from a life course perspective to examine the relationship between partnered sex and older adults' trajectories of mental health as well as the potential mediating role of relationship quality in this association.

METHOD

We analyzed nationally representative data from three waves of the National Social Life, Health, and Aging Project (2005/2006 to 2015/2016). The sample included 1,911 married and cohabiting respondents aged 57 to 85 at the baseline survey. We examined four factors related to partnered sex: being sexually active, sexual frequency, feeling okay with sexual frequency, and sexual quality. Mental health was measured by self-rated poor mental health, unhappiness, and psychological distress. The relationship quality measures considered both relationship support and relationship strain.

RESULTS

Results from mixed-effects models suggest that being sexually active, having sex more frequently, feeling okay with sexual frequency, and reporting better sexual quality were all related to better mental health outcomes. Relationship quality partially explained the effects of sex on mental health.

DISCUSSION

This study highlights the importance of sex for mental health and relationship quality among older adults. The findings have implications for health policy and programs that seek to promote healthy aging.

Predicting Sexual Desire in Daily Life from an Attachment Perspective: An Experience Sampling study

In the present study we investigated the temporal associations between emotional intimacy, daily hassles, and sexual desire of individuals in long-term relationships, and examined the direct and moderating effects of attachment orientation. We investigated these variables by reanalyzing an existing data set. Experience sampling methodology was used to collect data 10 times per day, across seven days. Attachment orientation was assessed with the Experiences in Close Relationships questionnaire. Age, gender, and relationship duration were added as predictors. Data of 134 participants (N_female = 87) were analyzed. Only one of the partners of a couple participated. Men overall reported higher sexual desire than women. Longer relationship duration was associated with lower sexual desire, but age was not associated with sexual desire. Increased level of intimacy predicted sexual desire across measurements with an average time interval of 90 min, but this effect was no longer significant when assessment points were 180 min apart. Daily hassles did not predict sexual desire at subsequent assessments. Avoidant and anxious attachment were not associated with sexual desire level. No interaction effects of gender, stress, intimacy and attachment orientation on sexual desire were found. Speculative explanations are offered for the absence of stress effects.

Theoretical Boundary Conditions of Partner Buffering in Romantic Relationships

Attachment insecurity is consequential for both personal and relationship wellbeing. Some research has documented that partner buffering can downregulate insecure individuals’ immediate feelings of distress, allowing them to feel more secure at least temporarily. The benefits of partner buffering, however, may be limited by several contextual factors. In this article, we identify boundary conditions that may curb or amplify the benefits of partner buffering for both targets (those who receive buffering) and agents (those who enact buffering). We suggest that motivation, ability, and timing may all affect partner buffering outcomes for targets and agents. If partner buffering is delivered in an adaptive way that does not reinforce the target’s insecure tendencies, it may help insecure targets learn that they can trust and depend on their partners (agents), which may facilitate greater security in targets. We recommend that future research consider these contextual factors and examine partner buffering as an inherently dyadic relationship process capable of enhancing attachment security.

Attached at the lips: The influence of romantic kissing motives and romantic attachment styles on relationship satisfaction

Although romantic kissing is an important part of relationship functioning, little research has focused on motives for romantic kissing and how they may relate to other aspects of romantic relationships. To understand how romantic kissing impacts romantic relationship functioning, the current study assessed the relationship between romantic attachment, romantic kissing motives, and relationship satisfaction. Overall, it was hypothesized that (a) those reporting more sexual/explicit kissing motives and fewer goal attainment/insecurity motives would report higher relationship satisfaction, (b) those reporting a more secure attachment style would report higher relationship satisfaction, and (c) the relationship between romantic kissing motives and relationship satisfaction would vary according to one’s romantic attachment styles. Results from a hierarchical linear regression with 286 adults, all of whom were currently in romantic relationships, revealed that sexual/relational (β = 0.25) and goal attainment/insecurity kissing motives (β = -0.35) predicted relationship satisfaction. However, the impact of kissing motives on relationship satisfaction varied according to one’s romantic attachment. Specifically, the influence of sexual/relational motives was only significant for avoidantly attached individuals, whereas the influence of goal attainment/insecurity motives was significant for avoidantly and anxiously attachment individuals. Overall, this suggests that sexual/explicit romantic kissing motives serve to enhance the relationships of insecurely attached individuals, but not securely attached individuals. Furthermore, goal attainment/insecure motives had a negative effect on the relationship satisfaction of insecurely attached individuals, but not securely attached individuals. This study has important implications for both practitioners working with romantic couples and researchers studying romantic relationships.

Attachment insecurity and power regulation in intimate relationships

Power and dependence are fundamental to the development of attachment insecurity and attachment insecurity is central in defining different ways people regulate power. This paper applies an integrated power and attachment perspective to advance understanding of the diverse ways people attempt to negotiate dependence and power in adult relationships. The paper demonstrates how: (1) power is integral to the concerns and goals underlying attachment avoidance and anxiety, (2) the situations that activate attachment strategies represent specific power-relevant concerns and goals, (3) the reactions associated with avoidance and anxiety reflect distinct strategies to regulate dependence and control, and (4) partners counter with their own power regulation attempts. The integrative model presented generates new insights into both power and attachment dynamics.

Sexual Activity and Relationship Quality in Middle and Older Age: Findings From The Irish Longitudinal Study on Ageing (TILDA)

Objectives

This study assessed the association between sexual activity, mismatches in the importance attributed to sex within couples, and relationship quality in older Irish adults.

Method

We used data from the Irish Longitudinal Study on Ageing (TILDA) to derive a scale of subjective relationship strain in married or cohabiting individuals. Negative binomial regression was used to assess the association between relationship strain and sexual activity. Separate models assessed the associations with importance of sex and within-couple mismatch in the importance attributed to sex and whether these associations were independent from sexual activity. Age interactions were tested.

Results

Sexual activity and within-couple mismatch in the importance attributed to sex were associated with relationship strain. The frequency of sexual activity was consistently associated with less relationship strain for men, but less so for women when the importance attributed to sex was accounted for. Results were largely consistent across age groups for men, but sexual activity and importance of sex varied with age in women.

Discussion

Frequent sexual activity was associated with less strain within-intimate relationships. For women, this association was weakened when accounting for the importance attributed to sex. Within-couple mismatch in the importance attributed to sex was associated with relationship strain, independent from frequency of sexual activity, for both men and women at all ages.

No Longer in a Dry Spell: The Developing Understanding of How Sex Influences Romantic Relationships

Sex is a defining feature of romantic relationships, yet only recently has research into the implications of sexual processes for such relationships proliferated. We review this work to illustrate how considering the way in which sexual processes influence relationships can help bridge theoretical and empirical work outside and within relationship science. We begin by providing a novel organizational framework for considering how sexual processes influence relationships, illustrating how they can be (a) a direct predictor of relationship outcomes, (b) a mechanism that explains important associations, and (c) a moderator that alters relationship dynamics. We then situate these findings within a dual-process framework for understanding how sex influences relationships and conclude by highlighting several open questions and methodological challenges that remain for future research. Our goal is to demonstrate how considering sexual functioning in light of a variety of theoretical perspectives adds to, and sometimes alters, what we know about relationship dynamics.

What Theories and Methods From Relationship Research Can Contribute to Sex Research

Sexual and relationship satisfaction tend to be closely linked in the context of romantic relationships. Understanding how sexual processes influence relationships and how aspects of the relationship influence a couple's sex life can provide insight into the maintenance of sexual desire and satisfaction over time. In this article, we review how theories and methods that form the foundation for relationship research have made-and will continue to make-sexuality research a stronger, more theoretical, and methodologically sophisticated science. We discuss the key theories that have been used to advance our understanding of who is more likely to be sexually satisfied in relationships, when sex is most satisfying, and how couples can have more satisfying sex lives and relationships. We then provide an overview of dyadic and repeated-measures designs and demonstrate how the use of these types of research methods allows relationship and sexuality researchers to answer novel and nuanced questions about how romantic partners influence each other, as well as how sexual processes unfold in couples' daily lives and over time. Throughout the review, we highlight what we see as fruitful directions for future research at the intersection of sexuality and relationships.

Actor and Partner Effects of Attachment on Relationship Satisfaction and Sexual Satisfaction Across the Genders: An APIM Approach

Previous studies found gender differences in relationship satisfaction and sexuality. We tested gender differences in associations between attachment, a lasting relationship determinant, and two outcomes, relationship and sexual satisfaction. This study improves on earlier research by examining these associations in one Actor-Partner-Interdependence-Model, making direct statistical testing between outcomes possible. Furthermore, a community and a distressed sample (N = 113 heterosexual couples each) were included to attempt replication across samples and to examine clinical implications. In both genders, actor attachment avoidance negatively affected relationship satisfaction and (with one exception) sexual satisfaction. Also in both genders, partner attachment avoidance negatively affected sexual satisfaction. However, whereas partner attachment avoidance influenced female relationship satisfaction, it did not affect male relationship satisfaction. The findings replicated across samples. Clinical implications are discussed.

The Fragile Spell of Desire: A Functional Perspective on Changes in Sexual Desire Across Relationship Development

The sexual behavioral system evolved to motivate reproductive acts by arousing sexual desire. Building on the idea that this system has also been "exploited" by evolutionary processes to promote enduring bonds between romantic partners, the present article introduces an integrative model that delineates the functional significance of sexual desire in relationship formation and maintenance. This model explains why individuals' sexual reaction to their partner is context-dependent, clarifying how changes in the nature of interdependence over the course of relationships alter the ways in which specific predictors of sexual desire tend to promote (or inhibit) desire and thereby affect relationship depth and stability. The model postulates that although desire influences the development of attachment bonds, the contribution that it makes varies over the course of relationships. The model also provides new insight regarding fundamental but unresolved issues in human sexuality, such as the vulnerability of sexual desire and the desire-intimacy paradox.

Revising Working Models Across Time: Relationship Situations That Enhance Attachment Security

We propose the Attachment Security Enhancement Model (ASEM) to suggest how romantic relationships can promote chronic attachment security. One part of the ASEM examines partner responses that protect relationships from the erosive effects of immediate insecurity, but such responses may not necessarily address underlying insecurities in a person's mental models. Therefore, a second part of the ASEM examines relationship situations that foster more secure mental models. Both parts may work in tandem. We posit that attachment anxiety should decline most in situations that foster greater personal confidence and more secure mental models of the self. In contrast, attachment avoidance should decline most in situations that involve positive dependence and foster more secure models of close others. The ASEM integrates research and theory, suggests novel directions for future research, and has practical implications, all of which center on the idea that adult attachment orientations are an emergent property of close relationships.

Expectations for future relationship satisfaction: Unique sources and critical implications for commitment

Contemporary perspectives on relationship commitment posit that intimates decide whether or not to maintain a relationship based on their commitment to that relationship, and that they base such commitment partially on their current satisfaction with that relationship. Nevertheless, given that ending a relationship requires knowing about both the current state of the relationship and the likely future state of the relationship, we propose that people base their commitment to a relationship more on their expected future satisfaction with the relationship than on their current satisfaction with that relationship. Six studies provided evidence for these ideas. Study 1 demonstrated that expected satisfaction is shaped by not only current satisfaction but also several unique indicators of the likelihood of future satisfaction, including anticipated life events, plans to improve the relationship, and individual differences. Then, using a combination of cross-sectional, experimental, and longitudinal methods, Studies 2 through 6 demonstrated that (a) expected satisfaction was a stronger predictor of relationship commitment, maintenance behaviors, and/or divorce than was current satisfaction and (b) expected satisfaction mediated the association between current satisfaction and these outcomes. These findings highlight not only the need to incorporate expected satisfaction into extent perspectives on commitment, but also the importance of expectations for decision-making processes more broadly. (PsycINFO Database Record

More Than Just Sex: Affection Mediates the Association Between Sexual Activity and Well-Being

Positive interpersonal interactions such as affection are central to well-being. Sex is associated with greater individual well-being, but little is known about why this occurs. We predicted that experienced affection would account for the association between sex and well-being. Cross-sectional results indicated that affection mediated the association between sex and both life satisfaction (Study 1) and positive emotions (however, among men only in Study 2). In Study 3, an experience sampling study with 106 dual-earner couples with children, affection mediated the association between sex and increased positive affect in daily life. Cross-lagged analyses in Study 3 to 4 supported the predicted direction of the associations. Moreover, the strength of the daily association between sex and positive affect predicted both partners' relationship satisfaction 6 months later. Our findings underscore the importance of affection and positive affect for understanding how sex promotes well-being and has long-term relational benefits.

Considering Attachment and Partner Perceptions in the Prediction of Physical and Emotional Sexual Satisfaction

INTRODUCTION

Attachment theory provides a framework for understanding sexual satisfaction; in general, research suggests that attachment anxiety and avoidance are associated with decreased sexual satisfaction. Given their different working models of self and other, perceptions of the partner's level of satisfaction might differentially influence people's own perceptions of satisfaction based on their attachment avoidance and anxiety.

AIM

To examine the predictive value of attachment anxiety and avoidance and perceptions of partner satisfaction in predicting physical and emotional satisfaction after sexual interactions in two studies.

METHODS

Participants (study 1, n = 52; study 2, n = 144) completed a one-time survey containing a measurement of attachment and then reported on their physical and emotional sexual satisfaction after each sexual interaction over the course of 2 to 3 weeks.

MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES

The Experiences in Close Relationships Scale-Revised was completed during the one-time survey, and ratings of personal physical and emotional sexual satisfaction (studies 1 and 2) and perceptions of partner's physical and emotional satisfaction were completed after sexual interactions (study 2).

RESULTS

Greater attachment avoidance was associated with lesser physical and emotional satisfaction. Moreover, when perceiving the partner to be emotionally satisfied, people with more attachment avoidance reported less emotional satisfaction for themselves. For greater attachment anxiety, greater perceived partner satisfaction (physical and emotional) predicted greater personal satisfaction of the two types.

CONCLUSION

The findings support attachment theory as a valuable lens through which to study sexual satisfaction. Moreover, the results suggest that it is important to consider perceptions of partner sexual satisfaction in understanding the sexual satisfaction of people who demonstrate attachment anxiety and avoidance.

Sexual Functioning in Young Women and Men: Role of Attachment Orientation

Prior research has documented various ways in which adult attachment styles are characteristic of differential behavioral and cognitive patterns within romantic relationships and sexuality. However, few studies have examined the direct influence of anxious or avoidant attachment orientation on sexual function. The aim of the present study was to assess the impact of insecure attachment on sexual function. Undergraduate students completed questionnaires measuring attachment style and sexual functioning. Among women, attachment avoidance tended to be associated with impairments in all aspects of sexual function, whereas anxious attachment tended to be associated with declines in arousal, satisfaction, and ability to achieve orgasm. A different trend was seen in men: Anxious attachment tended to be associated with multiple facets of sexual dysfunction, while avoidant attachment did not correlate with any sexual function deficits and was associated with superior physiological competence. These results suggest that both anxious and avoidant attachment styles are important yet differential predictors of sexual function in men and women.

Perceiving Partners to Endorse Benevolent Sexism Attenuates Highly Anxious Women’s Negative Reactions to Conflict

Benevolent sexism prescribes that men are dependent on women in relationships and should cherish their partners. The current research examined whether perceiving male partners to endorse benevolent sexism attenuates highly anxious women’s negative reactions to relationship conflict. Greater attachment anxiety was associated with greater distress and insecurity during couples’ conflict discussions (Study 1), during daily conflict with intimate partners (Study 2), and when recalling experiences of relationship conflict (Study 3). However, this heightened distress and insecurity was attenuated when women (but not men) perceived their partner to strongly endorse benevolent sexism (Studies 1-3) and thus believed their partner could be relied upon to remain invested (Study 3B). These novel results illustrate that perceiving partners to endorse benevolent sexism alleviates anxious women’s insecure reactions to relationship threat by conveying partner’s continued reliability. Implications of these security-enhancing effects are considered in light of the role benevolent sexism plays in sustaining gender inequality.

Forgive and Forget, or Forgive and Regret? Whether Forgiveness Leads to Less or More Offending Depends on Offender Agreeableness

How does forgiveness predict the likelihood of reoffending? One survey study, one experiment, one 4-year longitudinal study, and one 2-week diary study examined the implications of forgiveness for reoffending in relationships. In all four studies, agreeableness interacted with partner forgiveness to predict subsequent offending; partner forgiveness was negatively associated with subsequent offending among more agreeable people but positively associated with subsequent offending among less agreeable people. Furthermore, Study 4 demonstrated a unique mechanism of each simple effect; relatively agreeable people engaged in fewer transgressions against more forgiving partners because they felt obligated to refrain from transgressing against such partners whereas relatively disagreeable people engaged in more transgressions against more forgiving partners because they perceived those partners were less easily angered. These studies indicate that completely understanding the intrapersonal and interpersonal consequences of forgiveness requires recognizing the dyadic nature of forgiveness and attending to qualities of the offender.

The benefits of child-parent psychotherapy to marital satisfaction

INTRODUCTION

Given the interdependent nature of relationships within the family system, the purpose of this study was to examine the potential role of child-parent psychotherapy (CPP) to extend its positive influence beyond the mother-child relationship within families challenged by maternal depression. Accordingly, we analyzed longitudinal associations between depressive symptoms and marital satisfaction over 3 years in order to evaluate if the benefits of CPP to mother-child attachment security might generalize within the family and indirectly benefit marital relationships.

METHOD

We tested our hypotheses in a randomized control trial of CPP (N = 159 families) to examine the intervention's efficacy in families with mothers with histories of depression since the target child's birth (Mage = 20.4 months, SD = 2.5; 56% boys).

RESULTS

Using hierarchical linear modeling (HLM) with an actor-partner interdependence modeling (APIM) framework, the results supported our hypothesis as well as revealed significant associations between depressive symptoms and marital functioning. Specifically, shifts in mothers' depressive symptoms within specific waves of follow-up were associated with corresponding shifts in both their husbands' and their own relationship satisfaction in those same waves. After controlling for those effects, only mothers with a history of depression who received CPP demonstrated slight improvements in relationship satisfaction over the 3 years of the study, suggesting secondary benefits of CPP within the family system.

DISCUSSION

Results are discussed in terms of the importance of examining therapeutic processes within the larger family system. Concerning future research, we also suggest examining potential mechanisms through which CPP might influence marital satisfaction. (PsycINFO Database Record

Sex in Its Daily Relational Context

INTRODUCTION

The present study measured the daily correlates of sexual behavior in an ecologically valid context by relying on a daily diary approach.

AIM

Examining the dyadic and multicomponent nature of sexual behavior is essential to create valid models of sexual responding that are better aligned with the day-to-day context of having sex in a relationship.

METHODS AND MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES

During 3 weeks, heterosexual couples completed, two times a day, an electronic diary to report on mood, own and perceived partner behavior, relational feelings (in the evening), sexual activity, physical intimacy, and masturbation (in the morning). This design allowed testing bidirectional temporal associations between daily context and different types of sexual behavior.

RESULTS

Positive mood, displays of positive partner behavior, perceived positive partner behavior, and positive relational feelings predicted more sexual activity and intimacy in men, which then further increased their positive mood, perceived positive partner behavior, and positive feelings about the relationship on the following day. Women showed a similar pattern of predictors regarding sexual activity as men, though the effect of sexual behavior on next-day feelings and behavior was more relationship-oriented rather than affecting personal mood. Intimacy was related to almost all daily variables in women, but related only to own and perceived positive partner behavior and positive relational feelings the next day. Several partner effects also reached significance, and these were more influential in predicting male than female intimacy. Solitary sexual activity showed a different pattern of results than dyadic sexual activity, with men experiencing masturbation as negatively in the context of their relationship.

CONCLUSION

These results confirm the regulatory function of sex and intimacy in maintaining a positive relational climate and indicate that the quality of the everyday relational context is important to get partners in the mood to act in a sexual way.

Like a Horse and Carriage?

Abstract. Sexual urges and emotional attachments are not necessarily interrelated. Still, within romantic relationships, intimates typically function as both attachment figures and sexual partners, such that the attachment and sexual systems may influence one another. The present article reviews the reciprocal relation between these two systems. Specifically, previous studies have demonstrated the contribution of attachment processes to the appraisal of sexual interactions in adolescence and adulthood. Other studies have considered the reverse causal direction, focusing on the function of sex as a promoter of emotional bonds and on the circumstances under which this function is more pronounced. In doing so, some of these studies have investigated the role of attachment processes in linking sexuality with relationship quality and in shaping sexual responses to relationship-threatening events. More research is needed to explore the dual potential of sex as a relationship maintenance mechanism and as a force motivating people to pursue alternative partners.

Adding insult to injury: partner depression moderates the association between partner-regulation attempts and partners' motivation to resolve interpersonal problems

Intimates regularly confront their partners to motivate them to change undesirable behaviors. Nevertheless, contextual perspectives suggest that qualities of the partner may determine the implications of such attempts. Consistent with these ideas, a pilot study of romantic relationships, an observational study of newlyweds, and a diary study of married couples demonstrated that partner depression moderates the association between confrontational partner-regulation behaviors and partners' motivation, such that confrontational behaviors were associated with marginally greater motivation to resolve problems among partners who were experiencing relatively few depressive symptoms, but significantly less motivation among partners who were experiencing relatively more depressive symptoms. Furthermore, Study 2 provided evidence for the mechanism of these effects--relationship self-efficacy. Finally, these studies also demonstrated that benevolent behaviors were particularly motivating for partners who were experiencing more depressive symptoms. These findings highlight the important roles played by depression, relationship self-efficacy, and context in interpersonal communication.

Fatal Suppression

The attachment and sexual systems operate jointly across partners to affect relationship outcomes. In the present longitudinal investigation of newly dating couples, we tested a dual deactivation hypothesis of relationship dissatisfaction. According to this hypothesis, individuals whose sexual system is chronically deactivated are expected to experience low relationship satisfaction early in their relationships. Their satisfaction should increase with time, but only if their partners are low in attachment avoidance. Newly dating couples (2–4 months; N = 62) completed three waves of individual measures of attachment and sexual deactivation and relationship satisfaction in 4-month intervals. Dyadic growth curves showed that sexual deactivation was negatively associated with relationship satisfaction in the beginning of the relationship. This negative effect gradually disappeared among individuals whose partners were low in attachment avoidance, but persisted among individuals with avoidantly attached partners. These findings suggest that attachment processes can compensate for sexual difficulties.

Attachment and Dyadic Regulation Processes

Insecurely attached people have relatively unhappy and unstable romantic relationships, but the quality of their relationships depends on how their partners regulate them. Some partners find ways to regulate the emotional and behavioral reactions of insecurely attached individuals, which promotes greater relationship satisfaction and security. We discuss attachment theory and interdependence dilemmas, and then explain how and why certain responses by partners assuage the cardinal concerns of insecure individuals in key interdependent situations. We then review recent studies illustrating how partners can successfully regulate the reactions of anxiously and avoidantly attached individuals, yielding more constructive interactions. We finish by considering how these regulation processes can create a more secure dyadic environment, which helps to improve relationships and attachment security across time.

The conditional importance of sex: exploring the association between sexual well-being and life satisfaction

Leaders in the field of sexuality have called for additional research examining the link between sexual well-being and life satisfaction in women in order to expand knowledge regarding the important consequences of a satisfying sex life. Participants in the present study were sexually active women reporting a wide range of sexual difficulties who completed an in-person interview, validated self-report measures, and daily online assessments for 4 weeks. Sexual well-being was related to life satisfaction both cross-sectionally and within individuals over time. In addition, high relational satisfaction and low attachment anxiety served as protective factors, decreasing the degree to which unsatisfying sexual experiences were associated with decreases in life satisfaction. These results extend previous findings by confirming a strong association between sexual well-being and overall life satisfaction within individuals over time. The strength of this association is moderated by a number of intra- and interpersonal factors. Implications for healthcare providers are discussed.

Perceiving that one's partner is supportive moderates the associations among attachment insecurity and psychosexual variables

Attachment representations are associated with psychosexual adjustment in intimate relationships (Mikulincer & Shaver, 2007). Few studies, however, have investigated relationship processes modulating the effect of attachment insecurity on sexuality (Dewitte, 2012). This study examined whether perceived partner support moderates associations among romantic attachment (i.e., anxiety and avoidance) and sexual self-esteem, sexual anxiety, and sexual assertiveness in individuals involved in a romantic relationship (N=214). Results showed that individuals high on avoidance reported lower sexual self-esteem and assertiveness, as well as more sexual anxiety. Unexpectedly, they reported more sexual anxiety and poorer sexual assertiveness when partner support was perceived to be high. Moreover, low perceived partner support was related to higher sexual self-esteem in women scoring high on attachment avoidance whereas high perceived partner support was related to higher sexual self-esteem in men scoring high on avoidance. Individuals scoring high on attachment anxiety reported poorer sexual self-esteem and more sexual anxiety when partner support was perceived to be low, but attachment anxiety was unrelated to either sexual anxiety or self-esteem when partner support was perceived to be high. Findings are consistent with attachment theory and suggest clinical implications for individuals presenting with attachment insecurity.

"Tell me I'm sexy…and otherwise valuable:" Body Valuation and Relationship Satisfaction

Although extant research demonstrates that body valuation by strangers has negative implications for women, Studies 1 and 2 demonstrate that body valuation by a committed male partner is positively associated with women's relationship satisfaction when that partner also values them for their non-physical qualities, but negatively associated with women's relationship satisfaction when that partner is not committed or does not value them for their non-physical qualities. Study 3 demonstrates that body valuation by a committed female partner is negatively associated with men's relationship satisfaction when that partner does not also value them for their non-physical qualities but unassociated with men's satisfaction otherwise. These findings join others demonstrating that fully understanding the implications of interpersonal processes requires considering the interpersonal context. (120 words).

The role of attachment styles in regulating the effects of dopamine on the behavior of salespersons

Two classic strategic orientations have been found to pervade the behavior of modern salespersons: a sales orientation (SO) where salespersons use deception or guile to get customers to buy even if they do not need a product, and a customer orientation (CO) where salespersons first attempt to discover the customer's needs and adjust their product and selling approach to meet those needs. Study 1 replicates recent research and finds that the Taq A1 variant of the DRD2 gene is not related to either sales or CO, whereas the 7-repeat variant of the DRD4 gene is related to CO but not SO. Study 2 investigates gene × phenotype explanations of orientation of salespersons, drawing upon recent research in molecular genetics and biological/psychological attachment theory. The findings show that attachment style regulates the effects of DRD2 on CO, such that greater avoidant attachment styles lead to higher CO for persons with the A2/A2 variant but neither the A1/A2 nor A1/A1 variants. Likewise, attachment style regulates the effects of DRD4 on CO, such that greater avoidant attachment styles lead to higher CO for persons with the 7-repeat variant but not other variants. No effects were found on a SO, and secure and anxious attachment styles did not function as moderators.

Partner Buffering of Attachment Insecurity

Insecurely attached people have less happy, unstable romantic relationships, but the quality of their relationships should depend on how their partners regulate them. Some partners find ways to buffer (emotionally and behaviorally regulate) insecurely attached individuals, which makes them feel better, behave more constructively, and improves their relationships. Understanding when and how this important interpersonal process works requires a dyad-centered approach. In this article, we describe core tenets of attachment theory and the two forms of attachment insecurity (anxiety and avoidance). We then present the Dyadic Regulation Model of Insecurity Buffering, which explains how and why certain types of buffering behaviors soothe the worries and improve the relationship perceptions and behaviors of anxious or avoidant people. We next review studies of couples trying to resolve major conflicts that illustrate some ways in which partners can successfully buffer the insecure reactions of anxious and avoidant individuals. We conclude by discussing other traits and social contexts to which our model can be applied.

On the interpersonal dynamics of sexuality

To date, theory and research on the interpersonal dynamics of sexuality is scarce. This is remarkable because people most often have sex in a relationship. To create more valid models of sexual functioning, it is important to go beyond the study of individual factors and take into account relational and contextual variables, which may act as risk and protective factors for developing, maintaining, and exacerbating sexual problems. This article describes theoretical ideas on how sexuality and relationships can be linked through motivation and emotion regulation. First, the sexual system is conceptualized as an emotion regulation device that involves a dynamic interplay between cognitive, affective, and motivational responses. Then, it is illustrated how partner variables, relationship processes, and sociorelational context may interact with these different responses and eventually shape how sexual emotions are generated and regulated. The author continues with explaining the implications of such emotion-motivational perspective for studying determinants of sexual responding, the role of coregulation in tuning sexual responses in the couple, and the interrelation between the sexual and relational goals of both partners. Linking sexual and nonsexual aspects of relationships and including data of both couple members is necessary for a clearer insight into the nature of sexual dysfunctions.

Relationship duration moderates associations between attachment and relationship quality: meta-analytic support for the temporal adult romantic attachment model

Although research has examined associations between attachment dimensions and relationship outcomes, theory has ignored how these associations change over time in adult romantic relationships. We proposed the Temporal Adult Romantic Attachment (TARA) model, which predicts that the negative associations between anxious and avoidant attachment on one hand and relationship satisfaction and commitment on the other will be more negative as relationship durations increase. Meta-analyses largely confirmed that negative associations between both insecure attachment dimensions and both relationship outcomes were more negative among longer relationship durations in cross-sectional samples. We also explored gender differences in these associations. The present review not only integrates the literature on adult attachment and romantic relationship satisfaction/commitment but also highlights the importance of relationship duration as a key moderator of the associations among these variables. We discuss the broad implications of these effects and our meta-analytic findings for the TARA model, attachment theory, and romantic relationships.

The implications of sexual narcissism for sexual and marital satisfaction

There is theoretical reason to believe narcissism is associated with a number of sexual behaviors and outcomes that affect both sexual and relationship satisfaction. Nevertheless, research on the association between personality and behavior demonstrates that personality traits, such as narcissism, only predict behavior in domains that activate the components of the personality system. Given that global assessments of narcissism do not capture the extent to which the components of narcissism are activated in the sexual domain, we examined the extent to which the facets of a domain-specific measure of sexual narcissism accounted for the trajectories of own and partner sexual and marital satisfaction over the first five years of 120 new marriages. Three of the four facets of sexual narcissism (sexual exploitation, sexual entitlement, and low sexual empathy) were negatively associated with both trajectories. The fourth facet (sexual skill) was positively associated with both trajectories. Notably, sexual satisfaction mediated the effect of every facet of sexual narcissism on marital satisfaction. A global assessment of narcissism was not associated with either trajectory of satisfaction. These findings highlight (1) the importance of narcissistic tendencies for sexual processes, (2) the benefits of using domain-specific measures of personality in research on sexual behavior, and (3) the importance of examining the implications of the specific facets of personality constructs.

Sexuality examined through the lens of attachment theory: attachment, caregiving, and sexual satisfaction

Attachment researchers have proposed that the attachment, caregiving, and sexual behavioral systems are interrelated in adult love relationships (Mikulincer & Shaver, 2007 ). This study examined whether aspects of partners' caregiving (proximity, sensitivity, control, compulsive caregiving) mediated the association between their attachment insecurities (anxiety and avoidance) and each other's sexual satisfaction in two samples of committed couples (Study 1: 126 cohabiting or married couples from the general community; Study 2: 55 clinically distressed couples). Partners completed the Experiences in Close Relationships measure (Brennan, Clark, & Shaver, 1998 ), the Caregiving Questionnaire (Kunce & Shaver, 1994 ), and the Global Measure of Sexual Satisfaction (Lawrance & Byers, 1998 ). Path analyses based on the actor-partner interdependence model (APIM) revealed that caregiving proximity mediated the association between low attachment avoidance and partners' sexual satisfaction in distressed and nondistressed couples. Sensitivity mediated this association in nondistressed couples only. Control mediated the association between men's insecurities (attachment-related avoidance and anxiety) and their partners' low sexual satisfaction in nondistressed couples. Attachment anxiety predicted compulsive caregiving, but this caregiving dimension was not a significant mediator. These results are discussed in light of attachment theory and their implications for treating distressed couples.

Attachment insecurity and infidelity in marriage: do studies of dating relationships really inform us about marriage?

Attachment theory provides a useful framework for predicting marital infidelity. However, most research has examined the association between attachment and infidelity in unmarried individuals, and we are aware of no research that has examined the role of partner attachment in predicting infidelity. In contrast to research showing that attachment anxiety is unrelated to infidelity among dating couples, 2 longitudinal studies of 207 newlywed marriages demonstrated that own and partner attachment anxiety interacted to predict marital infidelity, such that spouses were more likely to perpetrate infidelity when either they or their partner was high (vs. low) in attachment anxiety. Further, and also in contrast to research on dating couples, own attachment avoidance was unrelated to infidelity, whereas partner attachment avoidance was negatively associated with infidelity, indicating that spouses were less likely to perpetrate infidelity when their partner was high (vs. low) in attachment avoidance. These effects emerged controlling for marital satisfaction, sexual frequency, and personality; did not differ across husbands and wives; and did not differ across the two studies, with the exception that the negative association between partner attachment avoidance and own infidelity only emerged in 1 of the 2 studies. These findings offer a more complete understanding of the implications of attachment insecurity for marital infidelity and suggest that studies of unmarried individuals may not provide complete insights into the implications of various psychological traits and processes for marriage.

Romantic attachment insecurity predicts sexual dissatisfaction in couples seeking marital therapy

Researchers and practitioners have noted the importance of considering individual characteristics as well as couple dynamics when attempting to understand couples and sexual difficulties. Using a dyadic approach, this study examined the links between 2 forms of romantic attachment insecurity (anxiety and avoidance) and sexual dissatisfaction among members of couples seeking couple therapy. A large clinical sample of 242 French-speaking couples completed the Experiences in Close Relationships Scale and the Index of Sexual Satisfaction. Analyses based on the actor-partner interdependence model revealed that both attachment anxiety and avoidance predicted individuals' own sexual dissatisfaction (actor effects). The authors also observed 2 partner effects: (a) anxiety in men predicted female partners' sexual dissatisfaction and (b) avoidance in women predicted male partners' sexual dissatisfaction. The results support attachment theory and have clinical implications for emotion-focused couple therapy and other approaches to couple therapy.

The dark side of forgiveness: the tendency to forgive predicts continued psychological and physical aggression in marriage

Despite a burgeoning literature that documents numerous positive implications of forgiveness, scholars know very little about the potential negative implications of forgiveness. In particular, the tendency to express forgiveness may lead offenders to feel free to offend again by removing unwanted consequences for their behavior (e.g., anger, criticism, rejection, loneliness) that would otherwise discourage reoffending. Consistent with this possibility, the current longitudinal study of newlywed couples revealed a positive association between spouses' reports of their tendencies to express forgiveness to their partners and those partners' reports of psychological and physical aggression. Specifically, although spouses who reported being relatively more forgiving experienced psychological and physical aggression that remained stable over the first 4 years of marriage, spouses who reported being relatively less forgiving experienced declines in both forms of aggression over time. These findings join just a few others in demonstrating that forgiveness is not a panacea.

Different perspectives on the sex-attachment link: towards an emotion-motivational account

Although the link between sex and attachment was made decades ago (Hazan & Shaver, 1987), theories on sexual and attachment functioning have been developed in relative isolation. Recent efforts to integrate both literatures have been complicated by the fact that the sex-attachment link has been approached from very different perspectives, including biological, evolutionary, developmental, cognitive, and social psychology approaches. Also, at the empirical level, research on sex and attachment lacks overarching synthesis. This article gives an overview of the most important theoretical ideas and empirical insights on sex and attachment. It starts with describing general models that approach the sex-attachment link from an evolutionary and neurobiological perspective. Then, it summarizes theoretical and empirical ideas of attachment theory and describes how attachment style differences are manifested in intimate and sexual relationships. Research so far has been limited to studying the predicted link between sex and attachment in terms of broad descriptives, and it would benefit the literature to specify the processes and pathways that mediate the sex-attachment link. After a short discussion of the functional similarities between the sexual and the attachment systems, the article describes some specific--dynamical--models that focus on the emotional and cognitive-motivational processes through which attachment schemas influence sexual experiences. Such an emotion-motivational perspective on sex and attachment can help to organize theoretical ideas and empirical findings and eventually promote an integrative view on how attachment dynamics can interact with sexual experiences.

Self-compassion and relationship maintenance: the moderating roles of conscientiousness and gender

Should intimates respond to their interpersonal mistakes with self-criticism or with self-compassion? Although it is reasonable to expect self-compassion to benefit relationships by promoting self-esteem, it is also reasonable to expect self-compassion to hurt relationships by removing intimates' motivation to correct their interpersonal mistakes. Two correlational studies, 1 experiment, and 1 longitudinal study demonstrated that whether self-compassion helps or hurts relationships depends on the presence versus absence of dispositional sources of the motivation to correct interpersonal mistakes. Among men, the implications of self-compassion were moderated by conscientiousness. Among men high in conscientiousness, self-compassion was associated with greater motivation to correct interpersonal mistakes (Studies 1 and 3), observations of more constructive problem-solving behaviors (Study 2), reports of more accommodation (Study 3), and fewer declines in marital satisfaction that were mediated by decreases in interpersonal problem severity (Study 4); among men low in conscientiousness, self-compassion was associated with these outcomes in the opposite direction. Among women, in contrast, likely because women are inherently more motivated than men to preserve their relationships for cultural and/or biological reasons, self-compassion was never harmful to the relationship. Instead, women's self-compassion was positively associated with the motivation to correct their interpersonal mistakes (Study 1) and changes in relationship satisfaction (Study 4), regardless of conscientiousness. Accordingly, theoretical descriptions of the implications of self-promoting thoughts for relationships may be most complete to the extent that they consider the presence versus absence of other sources of the motivation to correct interpersonal mistakes.