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Xu Z, Gao F, Fa A, Qu W, Zhang Z. Statistical power analysis and sample size planning for moderated mediation models. Behav Res Methods 2024; 56:6130-6149. [PMID: 38308148 DOI: 10.3758/s13428-024-02342-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 01/06/2024] [Indexed: 02/04/2024]
Abstract
Conditional process models, including moderated mediation models and mediated moderation models, are widely used in behavioral science research. However, few studies have examined approaches to conduct statistical power analysis for such models and there is also a lack of software packages that provide such power analysis functionalities. In this paper, we introduce new simulation-based methods for power analysis of conditional process models with a focus on moderated mediation models. These simulation-based methods provide intuitive ways for sample-size planning based on regression coefficients in a moderated mediation model as well as selected variance and covariance components. We demonstrate how the methods can be applied to five commonly used moderated mediation models using a simulation study, and we also assess the performance of the methods through the five models. We implement our approaches in the WebPower R package and also in Web apps to ease their application.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ziqian Xu
- University of Notre Dame, South Bend, IN, USA.
| | - Fei Gao
- Nanjing University of Posts and Telecommunications, Nanjing, China
| | - Anqi Fa
- Nanjing University of Posts and Telecommunications, Nanjing, China
| | - Wen Qu
- Fudan University, Shanghai, China
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Sevincer AT, Plakides A, Oettingen G. Mental contrasting and energization transfer to low-expectancy tasks. MOTIVATION AND EMOTION 2022. [DOI: 10.1007/s11031-022-09963-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
Abstract
AbstractMentally contrasting future with reality is a self-regulation strategy that triggers expectancy-dependent energization for tasks instrumental to attaining the desired future. Energization by mental contrasting even transfers to tasks unrelated to the desired future at hand. Would such energization transfer by mental contrasting even energize people to perform unrelated tasks for which they have low success expectations? In Laboratory Experiment 1, mentally contrasting (vs. indulging) about performing well in a creativity task triggered physiological energization and better performance in an unrelated low-expectancy cognitive task that participants received in place of the creativity task. In Field Experiment 2, mentally contrasting an interpersonal wish helped schoolchildren invest more effort and perform better in a low-expectancy academic task—finding typos. Online Experiment 3 replicated Experiment 2 with adults. Mental contrasting participants’ effort and performance in the low-expectancy academic task did not differ from their effort and performance in a high-expectancy task. We discuss implications for designing interventions to foster energization for low-expectancy tasks.
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Krpan D, Galizzi MM, Dolan P. When the Future “Spills Under”: General Self-Efficacy Moderates the Influence of Expected Exercise on Present Intellectual Performance. SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGICAL AND PERSONALITY SCIENCE 2021. [DOI: 10.1177/19485506211018367] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
We examined whether an expected future activity (exercise vs. relaxation) impacts a present behavior (performance on an intellectual task) that occurs prior to this activity. Across two experiments ( n = 320 and n = 466), the influence of expected exercise compared to relaxation on present intellectual performance was moderated by general self-efficacy (GSE)—a core personality trait that determines people’s confidence that they can surmount physically or intellectually challenging activities. Participants high in GSE had better intellectual performance when they were expecting to exercise versus relax, whereas the effect reversed under low GSE. Moderated mediation analyses suggested that task-focused attention (i.e., participants’ level of focus while solving the intellectual task) accounted for a significant proportion of variance between the future activity (exercise vs. relaxation) and present intellectual performance across different GSE levels. These findings document a previously unexplored channel through which future expectations shape present outcomes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dario Krpan
- Department of Psychological and Behavioural Science, London School of Economics and Political Science, United Kingdom
| | - Matteo M. Galizzi
- Department of Psychological and Behavioural Science, London School of Economics and Political Science, United Kingdom
| | - Paul Dolan
- Department of Psychological and Behavioural Science, London School of Economics and Political Science, United Kingdom
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When tough gets you going: Action orientation unfolds with difficult intentions and can be fostered by mental contrasting. PERSONALITY AND INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES 2020. [DOI: 10.1016/j.paid.2020.109970] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
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Sevincer AT, Musik T, Degener A, Greinert A, Oettingen G. Taking Responsibility for Others and Use of Mental Contrasting. PERSONALITY AND SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY BULLETIN 2020; 46:1219-1233. [PMID: 31928315 DOI: 10.1177/0146167219898569] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
Mentally contrasting a desired future with present reality fosters selective goal pursuit: People pursue feasible desired futures and let go from unfeasible ones. We investigated whether people are more inclined to spontaneously use mental contrasting when they feel responsibility. Studies 1 and 2 provided correlational evidence: Employees who felt responsible for completing an important team project (Study 1) and MTurk users who felt and actively took social responsibility (Study 2) were more inclined to use mental contrasting. Studies 3 and 4 added experimental evidence: Students who were instructed to imagine responsibility for giving an excellent class presentation in a group or alone (Study 3) and participants who elaborated on an idiosyncratic wish that involved responsibility for others or themselves tended to use mental contrasting (Study 4). Apparently, people who feel or take responsibility for others, the society, or themselves are more likely to use mental contrasting as a self-regulation tool.
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Krpan D, Galizzi MM, Dolan P. Looking at Spillovers in the Mirror: Making a Case for "Behavioral Spillunders". Front Psychol 2019; 10:1142. [PMID: 31156523 PMCID: PMC6532417 DOI: 10.3389/fpsyg.2019.01142] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/07/2018] [Accepted: 04/30/2019] [Indexed: 12/01/2022] Open
Abstract
Behavioral spillovers refer to the influence that a given intervention targeting behavior 1 exerts on a subsequent, non-targeted, behavior 2, which may or may not be in the same domain (health, finance, etc.) as one another. So, a nudge to exercise more, for example, could lead people to eat more or less, or possibly even to give more or less to charity depending on the nature of the spillover. But what if spillovers also operate backward; that is, if the expectation of behavior 1 influences behavior 0 that precedes it? For example, a person may form an intention to exercise prompted by a policy intervention but overeat at present as a result. We define such a possibility as a "spillunder." In the proposed article, we critically review the few papers that we have identified through a narrative literature review which have demonstrated spillunder effects to date, and we propose a conceptual framework. Based on evidence about the human mind and behavior from psychology and economics, we argue that spillunder effects may be more common than the limited empirical findings suggest. We propose six representative mechanisms through which the prospect of behavior 1 may impact behavior 0: executive functions, moral licensing and moral cleansing, emotion regulation, energization, construal level, and savoring and dread. We further discuss the policy and practical implications of spillunder effects and examine methodological issues that need to be considered when empirically testing these effects. As with our earlier paper on spillovers, we aim to motivate other behavioral scientists to research behavioral spillunders more systematically and extensively, and to prompt decision makers to consider these effects when designing behavioral interventions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dario Krpan
- Department of Psychological and Behavioural Science, London School of Economics and Political Science, London, United Kingdom
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Cross A, Sheffield D. Mental contrasting for health behaviour change: a systematic review and meta-analysis of effects and moderator variables. Health Psychol Rev 2019; 13:209-225. [DOI: 10.1080/17437199.2019.1594332] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/08/2023]
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Abstract
Abstract. Mentally contrasting a desired future with present reality fosters selective goal pursuit: People pursue feasible desired futures and let go from unfeasible ones. We investigated whether people spontaneously use mental contrasting when the demand to act toward their desired future is high. Study 1 provided correlational evidence: The participants who planned to act most immediately were also those who used mental contrasting. Studies 2 and 3 added experimental evidence: Imagining an immediate (vs. no immediate) action and being confronted with the opportunity to perform an instrumental (vs. noninstrumental) action, respectively, led participants to mentally contrast. The findings have theoretical implications by suggesting that people initiate mental contrasting as a problem-solving strategy; they have applied implications for interventions teaching mental contrasting.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | - Gabriele Oettingen
- Department of Psychology, University of Hamburg, Germany
- Department of Psychology, New York University, New York, NY, USA
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Gollwitzer PM, Mayer D, Frick C, Oettingen G. Promoting the Self-Regulation of Stress in Health Care Providers: An Internet-Based Intervention. Front Psychol 2018; 9:838. [PMID: 29962979 PMCID: PMC6013563 DOI: 10.3389/fpsyg.2018.00838] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/21/2017] [Accepted: 05/09/2018] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
The aim of our internet-based intervention study was to find out whether healthcare professionals can autonomously down-regulate the stress they experience at their workplace, using an established self-regulation tool called Mental Contrasting with Implementation Intentions (MCII). Applying MCII to reduce stress implied for our participants to repeatedly engage in a mental exercise that (1) required specifying a wish related to reducing stress, (2) identifying and imagining its most desired positive outcome, (3) detecting and imagining the obstacle that holds them back, and (4) coming up with an if-then plan on how to overcome it. We recruited on-line nurses employed at various health institutions all over Germany, and randomly assigned participants to one of three groups. In the MCII group (n = 33), participants were taught how to use this exercise via email and the participants were asked to engage in the exercise on a daily basis for a period of 3 weeks. As compared to two control groups, one being a no-treatment control group (n = 35) and the other a modified MCII group (n = 32), our experimental MCII group showed a reduced stress level and an enhanced work engagement. We discuss the strengths and weaknesses of the present study as well as ways to intensify MCII effects on stress reduction.
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Affiliation(s)
- Peter M Gollwitzer
- Department of Psychology, New York University, New York, NY, United States.,Department of Psychology, University of Konstanz, Konstanz, Germany
| | - Doris Mayer
- Department of Psychology, University of Hamburg, Hamburg, Germany
| | - Christine Frick
- Department of Psychology, University of Konstanz, Konstanz, Germany
| | - Gabriele Oettingen
- Department of Psychology, New York University, New York, NY, United States.,Department of Psychology, University of Hamburg, Hamburg, Germany
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Larsen JK, Hermans RCJ, Sleddens EFC, Vink JM, Kremers SPJ, Ruiter ELM, Fisher JO. How to bridge the intention-behavior gap in food parenting: Automatic constructs and underlying techniques. Appetite 2017; 123:191-200. [PMID: 29277519 DOI: 10.1016/j.appet.2017.12.016] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/17/2017] [Revised: 12/15/2017] [Accepted: 12/15/2017] [Indexed: 01/12/2023]
Abstract
Although parents often report positive intentions to promote and create a healthy food environment for their children (e.g., setting limits to snacks offered), they also experience difficulties in translating these intentions into actual behaviors. In this position paper, we argue that automatic processes explain an important part of the gap between parents' intentions and their actual food parenting behaviors. We provide a conceptual framework in which we hypothesize that automatic effects on food parenting occur through two key interrelated constructs: habits (key outcome construct) and volitional regulation behaviors (key mediating construct). Moreover, we discuss potentially important impulse-focused techniques that may directly change habits (e.g., nudging; inhibitory control training) or indirectly through volitional regulation behaviors (e.g., implementation intentions; mental contrasting). We make use of the literature on the role of intention-behavior discordance in general health behaviors and discuss implications for food parenting practices. Our framework provides a dual process view towards food parenting and may help to explain when and why parents are likely to engage in (un)healthy food parenting behaviors. In addition, this framework may hopefully stimulate research on (combinations of old and) new techniques to promote good food parenting behaviors.
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Affiliation(s)
- Junilla K Larsen
- Behavioral Science Institute, Radboud University, PO Box 9104, 6500 HE, Nijmegen, The Netherlands.
| | - Roel C J Hermans
- Behavioral Science Institute, Radboud University, PO Box 9104, 6500 HE, Nijmegen, The Netherlands; Department of Health Promotion, School of Nutrition and Translational Research in Metabolism (NUTRIM), Maastricht University Medical Center+, Maastricht, The Netherlands
| | - Ester F C Sleddens
- Department of Health Promotion, School of Nutrition and Translational Research in Metabolism (NUTRIM), Maastricht University Medical Center+, Maastricht, The Netherlands
| | - Jacqueline M Vink
- Behavioral Science Institute, Radboud University, PO Box 9104, 6500 HE, Nijmegen, The Netherlands
| | - Stef P J Kremers
- Department of Health Promotion, School of Nutrition and Translational Research in Metabolism (NUTRIM), Maastricht University Medical Center+, Maastricht, The Netherlands
| | - Emilie L M Ruiter
- Academic Collaborative Centre AMPHI, Primary and Community Care, ELG 117, Radboud University Medical Centre, PO Box 9101, 6500 HB, Nijmegen, The Netherlands
| | - Jennifer O Fisher
- Center for Obesity Research and Education, Department of Social and Behavioral Sciences, Temple University, 3223 N. Broad Street, Suite 175, Philadelphia PA 19140, USA
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Abstract
Abstract. Mentally contrasting a desired future with reality is a self-regulation strategy helping people manage their life by promoting selective goal pursuit: people pursue feasible futures and disengage from unfeasible ones. We investigated whether participants who effectively regulate their academic and everyday life spontaneously use mental contrasting. Indeed, students who were good self-regulators in the academic domain, as indicated by their high self-reported academic self-regulation skills, high need for achievement, and above-average grades mentally contrasted when writing about an important achievement-related wish (Study 1). So did participants who were good self-regulators in everyday life as indicated by their high self-reported generalized self-regulation skills and high need for cognition (Study 2). Results indicate that successful self-regulation is linked to spontaneous mental contrasting.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | - Gabriele Oettingen
- Department of Psychology, University of Hamburg, Germany
- Psychology Department, New York University, New York, NY, USA
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Mental contrasting of counterfactual fantasies attenuates disappointment, regret, and resentment. MOTIVATION AND EMOTION 2017. [DOI: 10.1007/s11031-017-9644-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/18/2022]
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Eight-minute self-regulation intervention raises educational attainment at scale in individualist but not collectivist cultures. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2017; 114:4348-4353. [PMID: 28396404 DOI: 10.1073/pnas.1611898114] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Academic credentials open up a wealth of opportunities. However, many people drop out of educational programs, such as community college and online courses. Prior research found that a brief self-regulation strategy can improve self-discipline and academic outcomes. Could this strategy support learners at large scale? Mental contrasting with implementation intentions (MCII) involves writing about positive outcomes associated with a goal, the obstacles to achieving it, and concrete if-then plans to overcome them. The strategy was developed in Western countries (United States, Germany) and appeals to individualist tendencies, which may reduce its efficacy in collectivist cultures such as India or China. We tested this hypothesis in two randomized controlled experiments in online courses (n = 17,963). Learners in individualist cultures were 32% (first experiment) and 15% (second experiment) more likely to complete the course following the MCII intervention than a control activity. In contrast, learners in collectivist cultures were unaffected by MCII. Natural language processing of written responses revealed that MCII was effective when a learner's primary obstacle was predictable and surmountable, such as everyday work or family obligations but not a practical constraint (e.g., Internet access) or a lack of time. By revealing heterogeneity in MCII's effectiveness, this research advances theory on self-regulation and illuminates how even highly efficacious interventions may be culturally bounded in their effects.
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Stephan E, Shidlovski D, Sedikides C. Self-prospection and energization: The joint influence of time distance and consideration of future consequences. SELF AND IDENTITY 2017. [DOI: 10.1080/15298868.2017.1314319] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/19/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Elena Stephan
- Department of Psychology, Bar-Ilan University, Ramat-Gan, Israel
| | | | - Constantine Sedikides
- Center for Research on Self and Identity, University of Southampton, Southampton, UK
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Oettingen G, Reininger KM. The power of prospection: mental contrasting and behavior change. SOCIAL AND PERSONALITY PSYCHOLOGY COMPASS 2016. [DOI: 10.1111/spc3.12271] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Gabriele Oettingen
- Psychology Department; New York University; New York New York USA
- Institute of Psychology; University of Hamburg; Hamburg Germany
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Loy LS, Wieber F, Gollwitzer PM, Oettingen G. Supporting Sustainable Food Consumption: Mental Contrasting with Implementation Intentions (MCII) Aligns Intentions and Behavior. Front Psychol 2016; 7:607. [PMID: 27199840 PMCID: PMC4850472 DOI: 10.3389/fpsyg.2016.00607] [Citation(s) in RCA: 39] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/26/2016] [Accepted: 04/12/2016] [Indexed: 11/30/2022] Open
Abstract
With growing awareness that sustainable consumption is important for quality of life on earth, many individuals intend to act more sustainably. In this regard, interest in reducing meat consumption is on the rise. However, people often do not translate intentions into actual behavior change. To address this intention-behavior gap, we tested the self-regulation strategy of mental contrasting with implementation intentions (MCII). Here, people identify and imagine a desired future and current obstacles standing in its way. They address the obstacles with if-then plans specifying when, where, and how to act differently. In a 5-week randomized controlled experimental study, we compared an information + MCII intervention with an information-only control intervention. As hypothesized, only MCII participants’ intention of reducing their meat consumption was predictive of their actual reduction, while no correspondence between intention and behavior change was found for control participants. Participants with a moderate to strong intention to reduce their meat consumption reduced it more in the MCII than in the control condition. Thus, MCII helped to narrow the intention-behavior gap and supported behavior change for those holding moderate and strong respective intentions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Laura S Loy
- Media Psychology Division, School of Communication, University of HohenheimStuttgart, Germany; Social Psychology and Motivation Division, Department of Psychology, University of KonstanzKonstanz, Germany
| | - Frank Wieber
- Social Psychology and Motivation Division, Department of Psychology, University of KonstanzKonstanz, Germany; Centre for Health Sciences, School of Health Professions, Zurich University of Applied SciencesWinterthur, Switzerland
| | - Peter M Gollwitzer
- Social Psychology and Motivation Division, Department of Psychology, University of KonstanzKonstanz, Germany; Motivation Lab, Psychology Department, New York UniversityNew York, NY, USA
| | - Gabriele Oettingen
- Motivation Lab, Psychology Department, New York UniversityNew York, NY, USA; Educational Psychology and Motivation Division, Department of Psychology, University of HamburgHamburg, Germany
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Sailer P, Wieber F, Pröpster K, Stoewer S, Nischk D, Volk F, Odenwald M. A brief intervention to improve exercising in patients with schizophrenia: a controlled pilot study with mental contrasting and implementation intentions (MCII). BMC Psychiatry 2015; 15:211. [PMID: 26335438 PMCID: PMC4557227 DOI: 10.1186/s12888-015-0513-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/25/2013] [Accepted: 05/29/2015] [Indexed: 11/10/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Regular exercise can have positive effects on both the physical and mental health of individuals with schizophrenia. However, deficits in cognition, perception, affect, and volition make it especially difficult for people with schizophrenia to plan and follow through with their exercising intentions, as indicated by poor attendance and high drop-out rates in prior studies. Mental Contrasting and Implementation Intentions (MCII) is a well-established strategy to support the enactment of intended actions. This pilot study tests whether MCII helps people with schizophrenia in highly structured or autonomy-focused clinical hospital settings to translate their exercising intentions into action. METHODS Thirty-six inpatients (eleven women) with a mean age of 30.89 years (SD = 11.41) diagnosed with schizophrenia spectrum disorders from specialized highly structured or autonomy-focused wards were randomly assigned to two intervention groups. In the equal contact goal intention control condition, patients read an informative text about physical activity; they then set and wrote down the goal to attend jogging sessions. In the MCII experimental condition, patients read the same informative text and then worked through the MCII strategy. We hypothesized that MCII would increase attendance and persistence relative to the control condition over the course of four weeks and this will be especially be the case when applied in an autonomy-focused setting compared to when applied in a highly structured setting. RESULTS When applied in autonomy-focused settings, MCII increased attendance and persistence in jogging group sessions relative to the control condition. In the highly structured setting, no differences between conditions were found, most likely due to a ceiling effect. These results remained even when adjusting for group differences in the pre-intervention scores for the control variables depression (BDI), physical activity (IPAQ), weight (BMI), age, and education. Whereas commitment and physical activity apart from the jogging sessions remained stable over the course of the treatment, depression and negative symptoms were reduced. There were no differences in pre-post treatment changes between intervention groups. CONCLUSIONS The intervention in the present study provides initial support for the hypothesis that MCII helps patients to translate their exercising intentions into real-life behavior even in autonomously-focused settings without social control. TRIAL REGISTRATION ClinicalTrials.gov ID; URL: NCT01547026 Registered 3 March 2012.
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Affiliation(s)
- Pascal Sailer
- Department of Psychology, University of Konstanz, Universitätsstrasse 10, 78464, Konstanz, Germany.
| | - Frank Wieber
- Department of Psychology, University of Konstanz, Universitätsstrasse 10, 78464, Konstanz, Germany.
| | - Karl Pröpster
- Department of Psychology, University of Konstanz, Universitätsstrasse 10, 78464, Konstanz, Germany. .,Center for Psychiatry, Feursteinstrasse 55, 78479, Reichenau, Germany.
| | - Steffen Stoewer
- Thurgau Psychiatric Services, Seeblickstrasse 3, 8596, Münsterlingen, Switzerland.
| | - Daniel Nischk
- Center for Psychiatry, Feursteinstrasse 55, 78479, Reichenau, Germany.
| | - Franz Volk
- Center for Psychiatry, Feursteinstrasse 55, 78479, Reichenau, Germany.
| | - Michael Odenwald
- Department of Psychology, University of Konstanz, Universitätsstrasse 10, 78464, Konstanz, Germany. .,Center for Psychiatry, Feursteinstrasse 55, 78479, Reichenau, Germany.
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Oettingen G, Kappes HB, Guttenberg KB, Gollwitzer PM. Self-regulation of time management: Mental contrasting with implementation intentions. EUROPEAN JOURNAL OF SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY 2015. [DOI: 10.1002/ejsp.2090] [Citation(s) in RCA: 62] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/11/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Gabriele Oettingen
- Psychology Department; New York University; New York USA
- Psychology Department; University of Hamburg; Hamburg Germany
| | | | | | - Peter M. Gollwitzer
- Psychology Department; New York University; New York USA
- Psychology Department; University of Konstanz; Konstanz Germany
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