Benevolent and hostile sexism in a shifting global context

The theory of and research on ambivalent sexism - which encompasses both attitudes that are overtly negative (hostile sexism) and those that seem subjectively positive but are actually harmful (benevolent sexism) - have made substantial contributions to understanding how sexism operates and the consequences it has for women. It is now clear that sexism takes different forms, some of which can be disguised as protection and flattery. However, all forms of sexism have negative effects on how women are perceived and treated by others as well as on women themselves. Some of these findings have implications for understanding other social inequalities, such as ableism, ageism, racism and classism. In this Review, we summarize what is known about the predictors of ambivalent sexism and its effects. Although we focus on women, we also consider some effects on men, in particular those that indirectly influence women. Throughout the Review we point to societal shifts that are likely to influence how sexism is manifested, experienced and understood. We conclude by discussing the broader implications of these changes and specifying areas of enquiry that need to be addressed to continue making progress in understanding the mechanisms that underlie social inequalities.

Feeling low and unhappy together? An actor-partner-interdependence model uncovering the linkage between different operationalizations of relationship quality and depression in different-sex couples

Some studies suggest a bi-directional association between low relationship quality and depression. However, the social impact of depression and the potential preventative effects of healthy relationships are not yet sufficiently understood, as studies have shown heterogenous results for effects in both directions. Therefore, the main aim of this study was to differentiate the actor and partner effects of this association more comprehensively using two measures to capture characteristics of relationship quality–firstly regarding general aspects of social system quality and secondly considering specific aspects of the romantic relationship. 110 different-sex couples were included, being separated in partners with highly pronounced depressive symptoms in women (Cw/DW) versus partners with low depressive symptoms (LDCs). We investigated effects cross-sectionally using multi-group analyses to predict relationship (couple specific questionnaire: PFB) versus system quality (general system quality questionnaire: EVOS) in a step-by-step approach, modelling actor and partner effects with variation within and across both groups and then comparing the results to models with equal actor and partner effects. Depression was measured with the PHQ-9. With regard to the relationship between depressive symptoms and system quality, the model that constrained actor and partner effects to be equal across both groups was preferred and showed negative significant actor effects across gender and groups. Concerning the association between depressive symptoms and relationship quality, the model constraining actor and partner effects to be equal within groups had the best fit to the data and revealed a negative partner effect in LDCs.

Conclusions

Controlling for the moderating variable of clinically relevant depressive symptoms, we found evidence for actor and partner effects, which differed between the two relationship measures. This underlines the importance to reflect how relationship quality is operationalized. The negative partner effect on relationship quality in LDCs emphasizes that even in a non-clinical context, depressive symptoms negatively impact the perceived relationship quality of both women and men. This suggests that addressing the relationship is important in non-clinical preventive contexts and calls for integrating the partner into counselling or trainings.

Counting on you: benevolent sexism increases women's financial risk-taking

The present research examined whether and how benevolent sexism, a subjectively positive but sexist ideology, would influence women's financial risk-taking and we proposed that benevolent sexism would increase women's financial risk-taking through economic dependency. Three studies converged to support our proposition. Specifically, Studies 1 and 2 (n = 387) showed that benevolent sexism was positively associated with women's financial risk-taking; such that the more benevolent sexism women endorsed, the more financial risks they tended to take. Using an experimental design, Study 3 (n = 126) established the causal link between benevolent sexism and financial risk-taking for women, and also demonstrated the mediating effect of economic dependency. These findings highlight the role of social ideology in influencing women's financial risk-taking. Implications were discussed.

Individuals' number of children is associated with benevolent sexism

Is having children related to benevolent sexism? Two theoretical accounts-benevolent sexism as role justification and benevolent sexism as a mating strategy-suggest the possibility of a positive and bidirectional association. Gender disparities in childrearing could prompt inequality-justifying endorsement of benevolent sexism and/or endorsing benevolent sexism could promote traditional gender roles that facilitate having more children. We assessed the bidirectional associations between individuals' number of children and their endorsement of benevolent sexism over a two-year period in a large national panel sample of New Zealanders (N = 6,017). Zero-inflated structural equation modeling indicated that having a greater number of children was associated with stronger endorsement of benevolent sexism two years later, but no evidence emerged for the reverse direction. This study illustrated ways to tentatively test predictions of theoretical accounts on sexism and identified new, though small, evidence for the role justification perspective.

Women Can Benefit From Sexual and Physical Valuation in the Context of a Romantic Relationship

Women are frequently valued for their sexuality and physical appearance, and there is theoretical reason to believe that the effects of such valuation depend on the context. A robust body of research demonstrates that such valuation from male strangers harms women's self-esteem; the current studies, however, tested whether women experience more positive outcomes when such valuation emerges in the context of their romantic relationships. Study 1 used an event-based diary study to demonstrate that when partners (vs. male strangers) draw attention to women's sexuality and physical appearance, those women report higher appearance esteem and, subsequently, higher self-esteem. Study 2 used data from two independent, longitudinal studies of newlywed couples to demonstrate that partner sexual and physical valuation has positive implications for women's self-esteem over time. These findings highlight that sexual and physical valuation is not inherently beneficial or harmful; rather, the implications of such valuation depend on the relationship context.

Why Still so Few? A Theoretical Model of the Role of Benevolent Sexism and Career Support in the Continued Underrepresentation of Women in Leadership Positions

We advance our understanding of women’s continued underrepresentation in leadership positions by highlighting the subtle, but damaging, role benevolent sexism, a covert and socially accepted form of sexism, plays in this process. Drawing on and integrating previously disparate literatures on benevolent sexism and social support, we develop a new theoretical model in which benevolent sexism of both women and those in their social networks (i.e., managers and intimate partners) affect women’s acquisition of career social support for advancement at two levels, interpersonal and intrapersonal, and across multiple domains, work and family. At the interpersonal level, we suggest that managers’ and intimate partners’ benevolent sexism may undermine their provision of the needed career support to advance in leadership positions for women. At the intrapersonal level, we suggest that women’s personal endorsement of benevolent sexism may undermine their ability to recognize and willingness to seek out career support from their family members (i.e., intimate partners) and managers for advancement to leadership positions. Implications for theory and future research are discussed.

Attachment insecurity and power regulation in intimate relationships

Power and dependence are fundamental to the development of attachment insecurity and attachment insecurity is central in defining different ways people regulate power. This paper applies an integrated power and attachment perspective to advance understanding of the diverse ways people attempt to negotiate dependence and power in adult relationships. The paper demonstrates how: (1) power is integral to the concerns and goals underlying attachment avoidance and anxiety, (2) the situations that activate attachment strategies represent specific power-relevant concerns and goals, (3) the reactions associated with avoidance and anxiety reflect distinct strategies to regulate dependence and control, and (4) partners counter with their own power regulation attempts. The integrative model presented generates new insights into both power and attachment dynamics.

Benevolent Sexism and Mate Preferences: Why Do Women Prefer Benevolent Men Despite Recognizing That They Can Be Undermining?

Benevolent sexism (BS) has detrimental effects on women, yet women prefer men with BS attitudes over those without. The predominant explanation for this paradox is that women respond to the superficially positive appearance of BS without being aware of its subtly harmful effects. We propose an alternative explanation drawn from evolutionary and sociocultural theories on mate preferences: Women find BS men attractive because BS attitudes and behaviors signal that a man is willing to invest. Five studies showed that women prefer men with BS attitudes (Studies 1a, 1b, and 3) and behaviors (Studies 2a and 2b), especially in mating contexts, because BS mates are perceived as willing to invest (protect, provide, and commit). Women preferred BS men despite also perceiving them as patronizing and undermining. These findings extend understanding of women's motives for endorsing BS and suggest that women prefer BS men despite having awareness of the harmful consequences.

Dynamics Within Intimate Relationships and the Causes, Consequences, and Functions of Sexist Attitudes

Ambivalent sexism theory (Glick & Fiske, 1996) revolutionized understanding of sexist attitudes by revealing how attitudes expressing that women are incompetent and seek power over men (hostile sexism) are accompanied by more benevolent attitudes expressing that men are fulfilled by cherishing and protecting women (benevolent sexism). In the current article, we demonstrate how recent research examining intimate relationship dynamics has advanced understanding of the causes, consequences, and functions of sexist attitudes. Men’s hostile sexism is associated with aggressive perceptions and behaviors within intimate relationships that impede the fulfillment of fundamental relational needs. Benevolent sexism functions to counterbalance these costs by facilitating caring relationship behavior that enhances men’s influence and satisfaction in relationships. The relationship security that benevolent sexism promises to women is also a key reason why women endorse benevolent sexism. Yet men’s and women’s endorsement of benevolent sexism has benefits for men, such as greater relationship-oriented support of men’s goals, but imposes costs for women, such as by promoting dependence-oriented support that undermines women’s competence. Moreover, the relationship investment that benevolent sexism fosters in women makes women more vulnerable to dissatisfaction when relationship problems arise. These dynamics demonstrate how seemingly positive outcomes in intimate relationships may be a barrier to gender equality.