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Siev JJ, Petty RE. Ambivalent attitudes promote support for extreme political actions. SCIENCE ADVANCES 2024; 10:eadn2965. [PMID: 38865461 PMCID: PMC11168463 DOI: 10.1126/sciadv.adn2965] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/02/2023] [Accepted: 05/07/2024] [Indexed: 06/14/2024]
Abstract
Political extremism varies across people and contexts, but which beliefs will a person support through extreme actions? We propose that ambivalent attitudes, despite reducing normative political actions like voting, increase support for extreme political actions. We demonstrate this hypothesized reversal using dozens of measures across six studies (N = 13,055). The effect was robust to relevant covariates and numerous methodological variations and was magnified when people's attitudinal or ideological positions were more polarized. It appears to occur because being conflicted about political issues can feel psychologically uncomfortable, making extreme actions more appealing. Notably, this emerged when people thought ambivalence was justified, whereas leading them to consider ambivalence unjustified suppressed the effect, suggesting that ambivalent people are coping with but not necessarily trying to reduce their ambivalence. These results highlight the interplay of affective and cognitive influences in extreme behavior, showing that beliefs people feel justifiably conflicted about can promote extremism.
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Affiliation(s)
- Joseph J. Siev
- Department of Psychology, The Ohio State University, Columbus, OH 43210, USA
- Darden School of Business, University of Virginia, Charlottesville, VA 22901, USA
| | - Richard E. Petty
- Department of Psychology, The Ohio State University, Columbus, OH 43210, USA
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Xu M, Petty RE. Two-Sided Messages Promote Openness for a Variety of Deeply Entrenched Attitudes. PERSONALITY AND SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY BULLETIN 2024; 50:215-231. [PMID: 36214520 DOI: 10.1177/01461672221128113] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
Prior research showed that people holding attitudes on relatively moral topics became more open to two- rather than one-sided messages as the moral basis of their attitudes increased. Across three studies (N = 963), we extend this finding to relatively non-moral topics by demonstrating that two-sided messages can encourage people with strong attitudes indexed by various non-moral attitude strength measures to be more open to contrary positions. Study 1 demonstrated this for four indicators of attitude strength (e.g., certainty). As the strength of one's attitude increased, two-sided messages increased in relative effectiveness over one-sided communication. This was mediated by perceived appreciation for the speaker acknowledging one's view. Study 2 replicated this finding in a preregistered experiment. Study 3 conceptually replicated and extended it to people holding attitudes based on their political identity. Finally, evidence was obtained supporting perceived appreciation (rather than source evaluation) as the key driver of this interactive effect.
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Ng WJR, Bu C, See YHM. Defensive Confidence and Certainty in Unchanged Attitudes: The Role of Affect-Cognition Matching. PERSONALITY AND SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY BULLETIN 2023; 49:773-790. [PMID: 35240885 DOI: 10.1177/01461672221074102] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
Despite much prior research on matching appeals to the affective-cognitive orientation of attitudes, little attention has focused on the consequences of affect-cognition (mis)matching when individuals resist persuasion. We propose that unlike a matched attack, an attack that is mismatched to the affective-cognitive orientation of attitudes would result in low defensive confidence individuals holding onto their unchanged attitudes with less certainty than high defensive confidence individuals. As hypothesized, low defensive confidence participants were less certain after an affective than a cognitive attack for a cognitive issue (Study 1), and the opposite was true for an affective issue (Study 2). Both patterns occurred again when the affective-cognitive orientation of attitudes was manipulated (Study 3) or measured as an individual difference (Study 4). Moreover, perceived knowledge mediated the effects on attitude certainty (Study 4). We end by discussing implications for our understanding of affect-cognition matching and attitude certainty.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Chi Bu
- National University of Singapore, Singapore
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Oettingen G, Gollwitzer A, Jung J, Irmak Olcaysoy Okten. Misplaced certainty in the context of conspiracy theories. Curr Opin Psychol 2022; 46:101393. [PMID: 35810667 DOI: 10.1016/j.copsyc.2022.101393] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/01/2022] [Revised: 06/01/2022] [Accepted: 06/07/2022] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
We examine conspiracy beliefs in the context of misplaced certainty-certainty that is unsubstantiated by one's own or others' skepticism. A conspiracy theory held with misplaced certainty may entail, for instance, "knowing" or feeling certain that secret actors are plotting against society yet acknowledging that this claim lacks evidence or is opposed by most other people. Recent work on misplaced certainty suggests that misplaced certainty predicts and results in antisocial outcomes, including fanatical behavior in terms of aggression, determined ignorance, and adherence to extreme groups. Introducing the concept of misplaced certainty to theory and research on conspiracy theories may help identify when and why conspiracy theories lead to deleterious behavioral outcomes.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Anton Gollwitzer
- Department of Leadership and Organizational Behaviour, BI Norwegian Business School, Oslo, Norway; Center for Adaptive Rationality, Max Planck Institute for Human Development, Berlin, Germany.
| | - Jiin Jung
- Department of Psychology, New York University, New York, NY, USA
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When dueling emotions and conflicting beliefs predict subjective ambivalence: The role of meta-bases. JOURNAL OF EXPERIMENTAL SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY 2021. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jesp.2021.104204] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
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Sawicki V, Agnew CR. Commitment strength versus commitment bolstering: Uncertainty undermines and promotes relationship success. The Journal of Social Psychology 2021; 161:47-62. [PMID: 32336217 DOI: 10.1080/00224545.2020.1756194] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/24/2022]
Abstract
Little research has examined factors that might weaken or strengthen commitment effects on relationship outcomes. The current research integrates attitude strength and investment model perspectives to identify uncertainty as a new moderator of commitment's predictive ability. Consistent with an attitude strength perspective, having doubt associated with commitment undermines commitment's predictive power. However, uncertainty can motivate uncertainty reduction achieved by acting in line with commitment. Therefore, uncertainty amplifies commitment effects on relationship maintenance, but only when behaviors are perceived to have implications for uncertainty. Across studies, certainty was found to moderate the link between commitment and relationship outcomes. Whether uncertainty weakened or strengthened commitment's predictive power depends on an individual's focus (implication-focused or not) when making relationship judgments.
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Philipp-Muller A, Wallace LE, Sawicki V, Patton KM, Wegener DT. Understanding When Similarity-Induced Affective Attraction Predicts Willingness to Affiliate: An Attitude Strength Perspective. Front Psychol 2020; 11:1919. [PMID: 32849128 PMCID: PMC7431687 DOI: 10.3389/fpsyg.2020.01919] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/31/2020] [Accepted: 07/13/2020] [Indexed: 12/05/2022] Open
Abstract
Individuals reliably feel more attracted to those with whom they share similar attitudes. However, this affective liking does not always predict affiliative behavior, such as pursuing a friendship. The present research examined factors that influence the extent to which similarity-based affective attraction increases willingness to affiliate (i.e., behavioral attraction) – one potential step toward engaging in affiliative behavior. Research on attitude strength has identified attitude properties, such as confidence, that predict when an attitude is likely to impact relevant outcomes. We propose that when one’s attitudes possess these attitude strength-related properties, affective attraction to those who share that attitude will be more likely to spark willingness to affiliate. Across four studies on a variety of topics, participants (N = 428) reported their attitudes and various attitude properties regarding a topic. They were introduced to a target and learned the target’s stance on the issue. Participants reported their affective attraction and willingness to pursue friendship with the target. Consistent with past research, attitude similarity predicted affective attraction. More importantly, the relation between affective attraction and willingness to affiliate with the target was moderated by the attitude strength-related properties. A mini meta-analysis found this effect to be consistent across the four studies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Aviva Philipp-Muller
- Department of Psychology, The Ohio State University, Columbus, OH, United States
| | - Laura E Wallace
- Department of Psychology, The Ohio State University, Columbus, OH, United States
| | - Vanessa Sawicki
- Department of Psychology, The Ohio State University, Marion, OH, United States
| | | | - Duane T Wegener
- Department of Psychology, The Ohio State University, Columbus, OH, United States
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Luttrell A, Sawicki V. Attitude strength: Distinguishing predictors versus defining features. SOCIAL AND PERSONALITY PSYCHOLOGY COMPASS 2020. [DOI: 10.1111/spc3.12555] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Andrew Luttrell
- Department of Psychological ScienceBall State University Muncie Indiana USA
| | - Vanessa Sawicki
- Department of PsychologyOhio State University–Marion Marion Ohio USA
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Wallace LE, Patton KM, Luttrell A, Sawicki V, Fabrigar LR, Teeny J, MacDonald TK, Petty RE, Wegener DT. Perceived Knowledge Moderates the Relation Between Subjective Ambivalence and the “Impact” of Attitudes: An Attitude Strength Perspective. PERSONALITY AND SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY BULLETIN 2019; 46:709-722. [DOI: 10.1177/0146167219873492] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/15/2022]
Abstract
Previous work has reliably demonstrated that when people experience more subjective ambivalence about an attitude object, their attitudes have less impact on strength-related outcomes such as attitude-related thinking, judging, or behaving. However, previous research has not considered whether the amount of perceived knowledge a person has about the topic might moderate these effects. Across eight studies on different topics using a variety of outcome measures, the current research demonstrates that perceived knowledge can moderate the relation between ambivalence and the impact of attitudes on related thinking, judging, and behaving. Although the typical Attitude × Ambivalence effect emerged when participants had relatively high perceived knowledge, this interaction did not emerge when participants were lower in perceived knowledge. This work provides a more nuanced view of the effects of subjective ambivalence on attitude impact and highlights the importance of understanding the combined impact of attitude strength antecedents.
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Vitriol JA, Tagar MR, Federico CM, Sawicki V. Ideological uncertainty and investment of the self in politics. JOURNAL OF EXPERIMENTAL SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY 2019. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jesp.2019.01.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/27/2022]
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