The Listener Sets the Tone: High-Quality Listening Increases Attitude Clarity and Behavior-Intention Consequences

Association of quality of nursing care with violence load, burnout, and listening climate

BACKGROUND

Violence against nurses is common. Previous research has recommended further development of the measurement of violence against nurses and integration of the individual and ward-related factors that contribute to violence against hospital nurses. This study was designed to address these issues by investigating the associations between violence, the listening climate of hospital wards, professional burnout, and perceived quality of care. For this purpose, we used a new operationalization of the violence concept.

METHODS

We sought nurses to participate in the study through social media which yielded 765 nurses working in various healthcare systems across Israel who volunteered to complete a self-administered online questionnaire. 80% of the sample were hospital nurses, and 84.7% were female. The questionnaire included validated measures of burnout, listening climate, and quality of care. Instead of using the traditional binary measure of exposure to violence to capture the occurrence and comprehensive impact of violence, this study measured the incremental load of violence to which nurses are subjected.

RESULTS

There were significant correlations between violence load and perceived quality of care and between constructive and destructive listening climates and quality of care. Violence load contributed 14% to the variance of burnout and 13% to the variance of perceived quality of care. The ward listening climate moderated the relationship between burnout and quality of care.

CONCLUSIONS

The results of this study highlight the impact of violence load among nurses and the ward listening climate on the development of burnout and on providing quality care. The findings call upon policymakers to monitor violence load and allocate resources to foster supportive work environments to enhance nurse well-being and improve patient care outcomes.

Disagreement Gets Mistaken for Bad Listening

It is important for people to feel listened to in professional and personal communications, and yet they can feel unheard even when others have listened well. We propose that this feeling may arise because speakers conflate agreement with listening quality. In 11 studies (N = 3,396 adults), we held constant or manipulated a listener's objective listening behaviors, manipulating only after the conversation whether the listener agreed with the speaker. Across various topics, mediums (e.g., video, chat), and cues of objective listening quality, speakers consistently perceived disagreeing listeners as worse listeners. This effect persisted after controlling for other positive impressions of the listener (e.g., likability). This effect seemed to emerge because speakers believe their views are correct, leading them to infer that a disagreeing listener must not have been listening very well. Indeed, it may be prohibitively difficult for someone to simultaneously convey that they disagree and that they were listening.

Effect of Listening Channels for Sport-Event Theme Songs on Willingness to Share

Purpose

The sport-event theme songs is a crucial means to evoke consumer enthusiasm and boost the influence of sport event. This research aims to examine the effects of direct and indirect listening channels for sport-event theme songs on consumers' willingness to share.

Methods

In this research, three between-subjects experiments were conducted to measure the effect of listening channels for sport-event theme songs on the willingness to share, along with the moderating effects of fans' fanaticism and sport-event type. All participants in the experiments were social populations from China.

Results

Study 1 reveals that direct listening is more likely to cause consumers to share cognitive information about sport-event theme songs; indirect listening, meanwhile, makes them more willing to share the emotional value of the songs. Study 2 indicates that fans' fanaticism moderates the relationship between listening type and shared content. In the case of low fanaticism, indirect listening can increase consumers' willingness to share sport-event theme songs compared with direct listening. Study 3 reveals that sport-event type moderates the relationship between listening type and shared content. For public welfare sport events, indirect listening is more likely than direct listening to cause consumers to share the emotional value of sport-event theme songs. For commercial events, compared with indirect listening, direct listening is more likely to cause consumers to share cognitive information about sport-event theme songs.

Conclusion

The results of this research unveiled the effect of listening channels for sport-event theme songs on the willingness to share, as well as the theoretical mechanisms behind them. In addition, this research enriches the research on listening channels in the field of psychology and provides an important basis for improving the effectiveness of sport-event theme songs.

The effects of listening with "time-sharing" on psychological safety and social anxiety: the moderating role of narcissism and depression

Listeners who interrupt speakers upset the speakers and prevent the benefits of good listening. Interruptions can be avoided with "time-sharing," where each partner listens (silently) for an equal amount of time. Yet, is time-sharing good for all? In an experiment with 50 pairs (95 participants with useable data), participants conversed freely for one minute and were then assigned either to a time-sharing (of three minutes each) or a free conversation condition. Consistent with our hypotheses, speakers in the time-sharing condition showed reduced social anxiety if they were high on narcissism but elevated social anxiety if high on depression, explaining past inconsistent effects of time-sharing.

Feeling heard: Operationalizing a key concept for social relations

Feeling heard is considered a cornerstone of close relationships and crucial to healthy self-development, but psychologically, this sentiment of feeling heard remains understudied. The current paper therefore aims to define and measure the experience of feeling heard. Based on an integrative literature review, feeling heard is conceptualized as consisting of five components at two conceptual levels. At the interpersonal level people feel heard when they have 1) voice, and receive 2) attention, 3) empathy, 4) respect. At the collective level people should experience 5) common ground. In two population surveys (N = 194, N = 1000), we find that feeling heard is a unitary concept, and we develop and validate the feeling heard scale (FHS); a concise eight-item scale with good psychometric properties. Results show that the FHS is a distinct predictor of conversation intentions in many different contexts and relationships. In fact, the FHS is the strongest predictor of intentions for conflict behavior among a set of 15 related variables (e.g., acquaintance, intimacy). We conclude by reflecting on the potential applications of this scale: in interpersonal relations and professional contacts, the FHS enables the assessment of one crucial dimension of social interaction.

Listening and attitude change

We review research on the role of high-quality listening behavior in attitude change. We examine how listening behaviors can impact attitudes and the mechanisms underlying these effects. The article discusses research that explicitly examines high-quality listening, as well as research that examines behaviors that may indicate high-quality listening or that incorporates high-quality listening into larger interventions. The reviewed research suggests that receiving high-quality listening increases psychological safety and open-minded self-reflection, leading people to consider perspectives they otherwise would not. This in turn leads to less extreme, clearer, and more nuanced views on the topic of conversation. Finally, we highlight the need for further research to better understand the role of listening in attitude change, particularly in non-western cultures.

Tell-and-sell or ask-and-listen: A self-concept perspective on why it needs leadership communication flexibility to engage subordinates at work

Beneath the verbosity of modern leadership theories, there is a simple truth: leading people is essentially about communication. The respective communicative philosophies underlying leadership theories can be broadly separated into two camps: one arguing that leaders should tell-and-sell and one urging leaders to ask-and-listen. In the present essay, we first define the two communication approaches. Second, we outline how both approaches manage to engage subordinates but in different ways. Third, we review the appropriateness of each of these communication approaches under different circumstances, outlining why communicative flexibility is needed. Lastly, despite the advantages, we discuss that leaders will struggle to adopt communicative flexibility due to widespread simplistic leadership schemas-in research and practice.

Listening fast and slow

The pattern of response times in conversation can reveal a lot about how people listen to each other. Fast response times not only telegraph eagerness but provide evidence of attending in such a way as to almost finish the other's sentences. In other situations, slow response times are more appropriate, such as when listening prompts deeper reflection, or to leave space for the enjoyment of an inside joke. Here we argue that close relationships are not marked exclusively by one or the other pattern, but by the ability to toggle effortlessly between the two as the conversation demands.

Listening as a positive communication process

Communication scholarship is inherently interdisciplinary, and the study of listening by those claiming Communication Studies as their home is no different. This article traces the study of listening as a positive communication process from its roots in understanding how students comprehend lecture-based discourse to current explorations of its constitutive potential. In particular, it traces three strands of communication-focused listening scholarship: the study of what listening is, the study of what listeners do, and the study of how listening creates the very contexts that allow its operation.

Listening training in organizations

Employee listening training in organizations has been sparse and under-researched until recently. The substantial work that Itzchakov and Kluger and their colleagues have conducted in the last six years has laid the foundation for researchers to come. When employees learn to listen better, it decreases turnover intentions and burnout. When employees exist in a positive listening culture, it creates well-being and ties to the bottom line. Employee listening training should not focus on theories or barriers to listening; rather, it should be experiential and contextual. The listening circle technique, as well as other techniques they share freely, show great promise as being easy to implement and tied to a host of positive outcomes.

Why listening to traumatic disclosures sometimes fails and how it can succeed

Traumatic events often launch searches for meaning, which can be advanced through emotional disclosure. Listeners contribute to reparative disclosures by attending to and accepting their content, imagery, feelings, and meanings. However, engaging in such highly attuned "authentic listening" can disrupt listeners' own fundamental beliefs. As a result, listeners can experience secondary traumatization-the intrusive images, negative emotions, and meaning searches that resemble post-traumatic stress. Listeners sometimes avoid these psychic costs by responding defensively to speakers' stories, altering their meaning, or commandeering their expression. However, listening defensively might be reduced, and authentic listening sustained by bolstering listeners' psychosocial resources. Providing listeners with their own disclosure opportunities might be a particularly potent way to do so.

Values and attitude certainty: The case for attitude clarity and correctness

Three studies examined how the perception that one's attitudes are based in values affects attitude clarity and correctness. Specifically, perceiving that one's attitude is based in important values increases attitude clarity (the subjective sense that one knows one's attitude) but not attitude correctness (the subjective sense that the attitude is correct). To test this, participants read a counterattitudinal message and were given feedback about the basis of their attitude. Relative to participants who learned that their attitudes were weakly based in values, participants who were told that their attitudes were strongly based in values reported greater attitude clarity than correctness (Study 1). Similarly, increases in attitude clarity from having an attitude based in values increased the perception that participants effortfully processed the message (Studies 2 and 3), the belief that participants more successfully resisted the message, and participants' intentions to act on the attitude.

Experimental effects of social behavior on well-being

Subjective well-being is characterized by relatively frequent positive emotions, relatively infrequent negative emotions, and high life satisfaction. Although myriad research topics related to subjective well-being have been explored - from how it should be measured to how it affects physical health - a key finding is that social connections are crucial. Researchers are therefore increasingly exploring whether subjective well-being can be improved through interventions that encourage specific types of social behaviors, including prosociality, gratitude, extraversion, and brief social interactions. We review this recent work, highlighting potential behavioral and psychological mechanisms underlying the effectiveness of such interventions, along with their boundary conditions.

The Wisdom Researchers and the Elephant: An Integrative Model of Wise Behavior

This article proposes an integrative model of wise behavior in real life. While current research findings depend considerably on how wisdom is conceptualized and measured, there are strong conceptual commonalities across psychological wisdom models. The proposed model integrates the components of several existing models into a dynamic framework explaining wise behavior. The article first specifies which real-life situations require wisdom and discusses characteristics of wise behavior. The core proposition of the model is that in challenging real-life situations, noncognitive wisdom components (an exploratory orientation, concern for others, and emotion regulation) moderate the effect of cognitive components (knowledge, metacognitive capacities, and self-reflection) on wise behavior. The model can explain the situation specificity of wisdom and the commonalities and differences between personal and general wisdom. Empirically, it accounts for the considerable variation in correlations among wisdom measures and between wisdom measures and other variables. The model has implications for the design of wisdom-fostering interventions and new wisdom measures.

How to get through hard times: Principals' listening buffers teachers' stress on turnover intention and promotes organizational citizenship behavior

When principals listen to their teachers, they may foster an open and receptive work environment that helps teachers adapt during stressful times. Two studies examined the role of perceived principals' listening to teachers on workplace outcomes. Study 1 (N = 218) was conducted during the first nationwide lockdown in Israel. Study 2 (N = 247) was conducted during a later lockdown and controlled for social support to test the independent effects of the two distinct interpersonal experiences. Findings supported our hypothesis that principals' listening would relate to lower teacher turnover intention. In addition, in line with our hypothesis, teachers high on perceived stress generally reported higher turnover intentions. However, the detrimental effect of perceived stress was not observed when teachers evaluated their principals as good listeners. Finally, we anticipated and found that principal listening is associated with organizational citizenship behavior. Specifically, teachers were more likely to help one another when feeling listened to by their principals.

Attitudes in an interpersonal context: Psychological safety as a route to attitude change

Interpersonal contexts can be complex because they can involve two or more people who are interdependent, each of whom is pursuing both individual and shared goals. Interactions consist of individual and joint behaviors that evolve dynamically over time. Interactions are likely to affect people’s attitudes because the interpersonal context gives conversation partners a great deal of opportunity to intentionally or unintentionally influence each other. However, despite the importance of attitudes and attitude change in interpersonal interactions, this topic remains understudied. To shed light on the importance of this topic. We briefly review the features of interpersonal contexts and build a case that understanding people’s sense of psychological safety is key to understanding interpersonal influences on people’s attitudes. Specifically, feeling psychologically safe can make individuals more open-minded, increase reflective introspection, and decrease defensive processing. Psychological safety impacts how individuals think, make sense of their social world, and process attitude-relevant information. These processes can result in attitude change, even without any attempt at persuasion. We review the literature on interpersonal threats, receiving psychological safety, providing psychological safety, and interpersonal dynamics. We then detail the shortcomings of current approaches, highlight unanswered questions, and suggest avenues for future research that can contribute in developing this field.

Connection Heals Wounds: Feeling Listened to Reduces Speakers' Loneliness Following a Social Rejection Disclosure

Memories of rejection contribute to feeling lonely. However, high-quality listening that conveys well-meaning attention and understanding when speakers discuss social rejection may help them to reconnect. Speakers may experience less loneliness because they feel close and connected (relatedness) to the listener and because listening supports self-congruent expression (autonomy). Five experiments (total N = 1,643) manipulated listening during visualized (Studies 1, 4, 5) and actual (Studies 2, 3) conversations. We used different methods (video vignettes; in-person; computer-mediated; recall; written scenarios) to compare high-quality with regular (all studies) and poor (Study 1) listening. Findings across studies showed that high-quality listening reduced speakers' state loneliness after they shared past experiences of social rejection. Parallel mediation analyses indicated that both feeling related to the listener and autonomy satisfaction (particularly its self-congruence component; Study 5) mediated the effect of listening on loneliness. These results provide novel insights into the hitherto unexplored effect of listening on state loneliness.

Are You Listening to Me? The Negative Link Between Extraversion and Perceived Listening

Extraverts are often characterized as highly social individuals who are highly invested in their interpersonal interactions. We propose that extraverts' interaction partners hold a different view-that extraverts are highly social, but not highly invested. Across six studies (five preregistered; N = 2,456), we find that interaction partners consistently judge more extraverted individuals to be worse listeners than less extraverted individuals. Furthermore, interaction partners assume that extraversion is positively associated with a greater ability to modify one's self-presentation. This behavioral malleability (i.e., the "acting" component of self-monitoring) may account for the unfavorable lay belief that extraverts are not listening.

The Power of Listening at Work

Listening is associated with and a likely cause of desired organizational outcomes in numerous areas, including job performance, leadership, quality of relationships (e.g., trust), job knowledge, job attitudes, and well-being. To advance understanding of the powerful effects of listening on organizational outcomes, we review the construct of listening, its measurement and experimental manipulations, and its outcomes, antecedents, and moderators. We suggest that listening is a dyadic phenomenon that benefits both the listener and the speaker, including supervisor-subordinate and salesperson-customer dyads. To explain previous findings and generate novel and testable hypotheses, we propose the episodic listening theory: listening can lead to a fleeting state of togetherness, in which dyad members undergo a mutual creative thought process. This process yields clarity, facilitates the generation of novel plans, increases well-being, and strengthens attachment to the conversation partner.

Toward a pedagogy of connection: A critical view of being relational in listening

Positive Organizational Scholarship (POS) perspectives define interpersonal work experiences such as positive work relationships and high-quality connections by the mutual growth and empowerment experienced by relationship or connection partners. Listening has been implicated as a key mechanism for building such positive interpersonal work experiences, but it is unclear how listening spurs on mutual, rather than one-sided growth, in relationship and connection partners. In this paper, we argue that management education currently focuses on the intrapersonal capability of listeners to execute key verbal and non-verbal behaviors. Less emphasis is placed on the mutual experience co-created between speaker and listener and, thus, on the potential for mutual growth and empowerment. We articulate what “being relational” in the listening experience means, and use experiential learning theory to articulate how educators might create learning spaces for “being relational” through conversations between listener and speaker. Throughout the paper we contend with issues of individual and structural power asymmetries inherent in understanding listening as a relational process.

Feeling Heard: Experiences of Listening (or Not) at Work

Listening has been identified as a key workplace skill, important for ensuring high-quality communication, building relationships, and motivating employees. However, recent research has increasingly suggested that speaker perceptions of good listening do not necessarily align with researcher or listener conceptions of good listening. While many of the benefits of workplace listening rely on employees feeling heard, little is known about what constitutes this subjective perception. To better understand what leaves employees feeling heard or unheard, we conducted 41 interviews with bank employees, who collectively provided 81 stories about listening interactions they had experienced at work. Whereas, prior research has typically characterized listening as something that is perceived through responsive behaviors within conversation, our findings suggest conversational behaviors alone are often insufficient to distinguish between stories of feeling heard vs. feeling unheard. Instead, our interviewees felt heard or unheard only when listeners met their subjective needs and expectations. Sometimes their needs and expectations could be fulfilled through conversation alone, and other times action was required. Notably, what would be categorized objectively as good listening during an initial conversation could be later counteracted by a failure to follow-through in ways expected by the speaker. In concert, these findings contribute to both theory and practice by clarifying how listening behaviors take on meaning from the speakers' perspective and the circumstances under which action is integral to feeling heard. Moreover, they point toward the various ways listeners can engage to help speakers feel heard in critical conversations.

Motivated to express: Salience of oppression toward other women encourages women’s self-expression

Women’s oppression undermines and inhibits women but may also prompt an enterprising reaction. In this paper, three studies explored the extent to which women respond to awareness of the oppression of other women with an increased desire for self-expression, a reactive but constructive response. Study 1 explored reactions to two forms of other women’s oppression: restricted self-expression and restricted economic opportunities. Women reported an increased desire to self-express after exposure to either form of oppression, as compared to a control group. Study 2 compared British women’s reactions to stories of a woman versus a man being oppressed, finding the former group wrote more words about an unrelated, but timely and consequential topic (Brexit). Finally, Study 3 replicated the effect of greater self-expression after being exposed to women’s oppression, and furthermore identified an indirect effect through reactance. Findings are discussed in relation to identity, constructive forms of reactance, and implications for current women’s rights movements.

Parental listening when adolescents self-disclose: A preregistered experimental study

Parental listening is believed to be an important quality of parent-child interactions, but its effects on adolescents are not well understood. The current study experimentally manipulated parental listening in video-recordings of an adolescent's self-disclosure to test effects on anticipated well-being (positive affect, self-esteem, and less negative affect) and self-disclosure intention. Good listening was manipulated in two situations relevant to vaping: hurt feelings of alienation from pressuring peers and having transgressed by vaping. Participants (N = 1001) aged 13-16 years viewed videos and reported on their anticipated reactions. Following a preregistered analytic plan, viewing good listening was found to predict greater well-being and self-disclosure intention. Consistent with self-determination theory, anticipated psychological need satisfaction for autonomy (freedom to be self-congruent) and relatedness (connectedness to parents) mediated the effects of listening on downstream outcomes. Parental listening effects on adolescent outcomes generalized across both situations of disclosure, in line with preregistered hypotheses.

Feeling correct is feeling prejudiced: The differential effects of attitude correctness and attitude clarity on evaluations of outgroups

Global attitude certainty consists of two subconstructs: attitude clarity—certainty that one is aware of one’s true attitudes—and attitude correctness, certainty that one’s attitudes are morally correct and valid. Attitude correctness is more often associated with group-related psychological and behavioral outcomes than attitude clarity. As such, we expected that attitude correctness, but not attitude clarity, would be associated with more negative attitudes toward outgroups when group boundaries are defined by attitudes. Across four studies, greater attitude correctness related to more negative attitudes toward attitudinal outgroups regardless of context (e.g., political, religious); attitude clarity’s relationship to prejudice was inconsistent (Studies 1a and 2: positive or no relationship; Study 3: negative; Studies 1b and 4: no relationship). In Studies 2 and 3, mediational analyses showed that greater attitude correctness was associated with stronger beliefs that group boundaries are sharp and distinct (i.e., discreteness beliefs), which in turn was associated with greater prejudice. Finally, Study 4 demonstrated that the attitude correctness–prejudice link was associated with greater intention to engage in competitive behaviors in a conflict resolution scenario with an outgroup member.

Can high quality listening predict lower speakers' prejudiced attitudes?

Theorizing from humanistic and motivational literatures suggests attitude change may occur because high quality listening facilitates the insight needed to explore and integrate potentially threatening information relevant to the self. By extension, self-insight may enable attitude change as a result of conversations about prejudice. We tested whether high quality listening would predict attitudes related to speakers' prejudices and whether self-insight would mediate this effect. Study 1 (preregistered) examined scripted conversations characterized by high, regular, and poor listening quality. In Study 2, we manipulated high versus regular listening quality in the laboratory as speakers talked about their prejudiced attitudes. Finally, Study 3 (preregistered) used a more robust measure of prejudiced attitudes to test whether perceived social acceptance could be an alternative explanation to Study 2 findings. Across these studies, the exploratory (pilot study and Study 2) and confirmatory (Studies 1 & 3) findings were in line with expectations that high, versus regular and poor, quality listening facilitated lower prejudiced attitudes because it increased self-insight. A meta-analysis of the studies (N = 952) showed that the average effect sizes for high quality listening (vs. comparison conditions) on self-insight, openness to change and prejudiced attitudes were, ds = 1.19, 0.46, 0.32 95%CIs [0.73, 1.51], [0.29, 0.63] [0.12, 0.53], respectively. These results suggest that when having conversations about prejudice, high-quality listening modestly shapes prejudice following conversations about it, and underscore the importance of self-insight and openness to change in this process.

Perceived Responsiveness Increases Tolerance of Attitude Ambivalence and Enhances Intentions to Behave in an Open-Minded Manner

Can perceived responsiveness, the belief that meaningful others attend to and react supportively to core defining feature of the self, shape the structure of attitudes? We predicted that perceived responsiveness fosters open-mindedness, which, in turn, allows people to be simultaneously aware of opposing evaluations of an attitude object. We also hypothesized that this process will result in behavior intentions to consider multiple perspectives about the topic. Furthermore, we predicted that perceived responsiveness will enable people to tolerate accessible opposing evaluations without feeling discomfort. We found consistent support for our hypotheses in four laboratory experiments (Studies 1-3, 5) and a diary study (Study 4). Moreover, we found that perceived responsiveness reduces the perception that one's initial attitude is correct and valid. These findings indicate that attitude structure and behavior intentions can be changed by an interpersonal variable, unrelated to the attitude itself.

The future of feedback: Motivating performance improvement through future-focused feedback

Managerial feedback discussions often fail to produce the desired performance improvements. Three studies shed light on why performance feedback fails and how it can be made more effective. In Study 1, managers described recent performance feedback experiences in their work settings. In Studies 2 and 3, pairs of managers role-played a performance review meeting. In all studies, recipients of mixed and negative feedback doubted the accuracy of the feedback and the providers' qualifications to give it. Disagreement regarding past performance was greater following the feedback discussion than before, due to feedback recipients' increased self-protective and self-enhancing attributions. Managers were motivated to improve to the extent they perceived the feedback conversation to be focused on future actions rather than on past performance. Our findings have implications for the theory and practice of performance management.

Listening and interpersonal communication skills as predictors of resilience in occupational therapy students: A cross-sectional study

Introduction

This study investigated whether listening and communication skills are predictive of occupational therapy students’ resilience.

Method

135 third- and fourth-year undergraduate occupational therapy students (74% response rate) completed the Active-Empathetic Listening Scale, Listening Styles Profile – Revised, Interpersonal Communication Competence Scale, Resilience at University and Resilience Scale for Adults instruments. Linear regressions were completed with the Resilience at University and Resilience Scale for Adults subscales as the dependent variables and the Active-Empathetic Listening Scale, Listening Styles Profile – Revised and Interpersonal Communication Competence Scale subscales as the independent variables.

Results

Regression analysis identified significant predictors of students’ resilience. The Active-Empathetic Listening Scale: Sensing Listening accounted for 5% ( p =  .009) and 4.3% ( p =  .011) of the unique variance of Resilience at University: Find Your Calling and Living Authentically. Listening Styles Profile – Revised: Analytical Listening accounted for 4.4% ( p =  .022) and 2.7% ( p =  .038) of the unique variance of Resilience at University: Managing Stress and Maintaining Perspective. Interpersonal Communication Competence Scale: Self-Disclosure accounted for 6.7% ( p =  .003), 3.6% ( p =  .035) and 3.4% ( p =  .047) of the unique variance of Resilience Scale for Adults: Social Resources, Resilience at University: Maintaining Perspective and Resilience Scale for Adults: Planned Future. Interpersonal Communication Competence Scale: Social Relaxation accounted for 8.5% ( p =  .001) of the unique variance of Resilience Scale for Adults: Social Competence.

Conclusion

Components of listening and interpersonal communication were found to be significant predictors of resilience in occupational therapy students. Further investigation in this area of research is recommended.

Question asking as a dyadic behavior

Huang, Yeomans, Brooks, Minson, and Gino (2017) studied the role of question asking in conversations. They claimed to have identified "a robust and consistent relationship between question-asking and liking" (p. 1), where liking is affected largely by follow-up questions, rather than by switch questions. They concluded that their "data support a trait-level model of question-asking behavior" (p. 12), and that "question-asking is a critical component of active listening" (p. 14). Our theoretical, methodological, and empirical reanalyses of their speed-dating study (Study 3), where liking was operationalized as being offered a second date, lead to different conclusions. Their speed-dating data conforms to an asymmetric block design, and should have been analyzed using the social relations model, to unconfound the effects of the actor, partner, dyad, and gender. Social relations modeling showed that about a third of the variance of question asking can be attributed to a trait, but that another third of the variance can be attributed to the specific dyad, and some smaller portion of the variance can be attributed to the partner's tendency to elicit question asking. Bivariate social relations modeling showed that latent scores of follow-up questions and switch questions are largely isomorphic. Finally, asking an opposite sex partner questions tends to be inversely related to being offered a second date, at least for men. Based on theory, our reanalysis, and other empirical findings, we conclude that offering a second-date is not equivalent to liking, and that question asking is different from listening. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2019 APA, all rights reserved).