Secret disclosure and social relationships in groups

Personal secrets are a ubiquitous fact of group life, but the conditions under which they are revealed have not been explored. In five studies, we assessed secret disclosure in groups governed by four models of human sociality (Communal Sharing, Equality Matching, Authority Ranking, Market Pricing; Fiske). In Studies 1a and 1b, participants indicated their willingness to disclose secrets in hypothetical groups governed by the models. In Studies 2a and 2b, participants rated how much a group in which they disclosed secrets or nonsecrets is governed by the models. In Study 3, participants indicated their disclosure of various types of secrets in Communal Sharing and Equality Matching groups to which they belonged. Across studies, disclosure was most strongly associated with Communal Sharing, followed by Equality Matching. Study 3 further showed that identity fusion predicted disclosure in these two kinds of groups. Implications for understanding disclosure of personal secrets in group contexts were discussed.

Self-concealment, secrecy, and guilt

OBJECTIVE

Individuals with a tendency to conceal unflattering information about themselves are more likely to be preoccupied by their secrets and tend to report more negative affect. According to theory, this negative affect is due to self-concealers' conflicting motivation to be authentic in their relationship but fear the negative consequences should they reveal their secrets, which promotes ill-fated attempts to suppress. The purpose of the current study was to test a central component of this model.

METHODS

Two studies of adults who were in a romantic relationship and keeping a secret from their partner (combined N = 635; 67.2% women; Mage  = 39.6, SD = 11.9) were surveyed on four biweekly occasions. Multilevel mediation analyses were conducted to test whether preoccupation and suppression mediated the link between self-concealing and negative affect and guilt.

RESULTS

The data support the hypotheses. Self-concealers were more preoccupied with and prone to suppress their secret than those low on the trait, which, in turn, predicted greater negative affect and guilt.

CONCLUSION

The findings suggest that self-concealers' insecurities and fear of the relational consequences of disclosure set the stage for the debilitating cycle of suppression and preoccupation that leaves them feeling anxious and guilty.

Secrecy in Everyday Life

Secrecy is common, yet we know little about how it plays out in daily life. Most existing research on secrecy is based on methods involving retrospection over long periods of time, failing to capture secrecy "in the wild." Filling this gap, we conducted two studies using intensive longitudinal designs to present the first picture of secrecy in everyday life. We investigated momentary contextual factors and individual differences as predictors of mind-wandering to and concealing secrets. Contextual factors more consistently predicted secrecy experiences than person-level factors. Feeling more negative about a secret predicted a greater likelihood of mind-wandering to the secret. Interacting with the secret target was linked with a greater likelihood of secret concealment. Individual differences were not consistently associated with mind-wandering to secrets. We conclude that daily experiences with secrets may be better predicted by momentary feelings rather than individual differences such as personality traits.

Seeking solitude skills: Do memories of intrinsic goals enhance enjoyment of alone time?

OBJECTIVE

Further investigate the application of self-determination theory (SDT) to experiences of solitude by examining the effects of recalling intrinsic versus non-intrinsic memories.

BACKGROUND

SDT research indicates that recalling memories associated with intrinsic goals (e.g., personal growth, relationships, altruism) enhances present moment wellness by satisfying basic psychological needs.

METHOD

Two studies were conducted with American adults. Study 1 included 465 participants (age = 49.49 [SD = 19.01], 49.46% female) and Study 2 comprised 490 participants (age = 54.16 [SD = 18.89], 51.84% female). Both studies assessed the impact of recalling intrinsic versus non-intrinsic memories prior to a five-minute solitude session.

RESULTS

Study 1 found intrinsic memories were linked to more basic psychological need satisfaction than non-intrinsic memories, but both memory types resulted in similar wellness improvements. Contrary to expectations, Study 2 revealed extrinsic memories (e.g., wealth, fame, image) led to the highest basic psychological need satisfaction and least need frustration compared to intrinsic and neutral memories, with all memory conditions showing similar wellness gains.

CONCLUSIONS

Solitude appears beneficial regardless of memory content. While different memories vary in need satisfying quality, this does not seem to impact the benefits of solitude. These findings suggest further exploration is needed before developing a "solitude skill set" for use during inevitable periods of solitude.

Deception is associated with reduced social connection

Lies can have major consequences if undetected. Research to date has focused primarily on the consequences of deception for receivers once lies are discovered. We advance deception research and relationship science by studying the social consequences of deception for the sender-even if their lies remain undetected. In a correlational study of video conversations (Study 1; N = 776), an experimental study of text conversations (Study 2; N = 416), and a survey of dispositional tendencies (Study 3; N = 399), we find consistent evidence that people who lie tend to assume that others are lying too, and this impedes their ability to form social connections. The findings provide insight into how (dis)honesty and loneliness may go together, and suggest that lies-even when undetected-harm our relationships.

How Much Is It Weighing on You? Development and Validation of the Secrecy Burden Scale

Keeping a secret is often considered burdensome, with numerous consequences for well-being. However, there is no standardized measure of secrecy burden, and most studies focus on individual/cognitive burden without considering social/relational aspects. This research aimed to develop and validate a secrecy burden measure tapping both intrapersonal and interpersonal components. Study 1 used exploratory factor analysis to reveal a four-factor model of secrecy burden: Daily Personal Impact, Relationship Impact, Pull to Reveal, and Anticipated Consequences. Study 2 used confirmatory factor analysis to replicate this factor structure and found that each factor was uniquely associated with different emotional and well-being outcomes. Study 3 employed a longitudinal design and found that higher scores on each factor predicted lower authenticity and higher depression and anxiety 2 to 3 weeks later. Altogether, this research is the first step in standardizing a secrecy burden measure and applying it to real-world secrets and well-being outcomes.

Donate for your Secrets: Relationship between Secrecy, Guilt and Donation Behavior

Previous research has well documented the negative sides of secrecy, ignoring its potential constructive aspects. Based on the concept of compensatory behavior, this study conducted two experiments with 532 adults to explore the mediating role of felt guilt between secrecy and donation, and the moderating role of moral identity. Study 1 (N = 272) showed that felt guilt mediated the relationship between secrecy and donation behaviors. Study 2 (N = 260) validated the mediation effect of Study 1 and further indicated that the mediated path was stronger for participants with higher moral identity. Specifically, participants with higher moral identity felt more guilty and donated more after secrecy than those with lower moral identity. The results of this study not only expand the constructive consequences of secrecy but also add more ways to appeal for donations.

Disclosure dilemmas: how people with a mental health condition perceive and manage disclosure at work

PURPOSE

Little research has explored the process of disclosure decision-making from antecedents to outcomes. This paper presents a model of decision-making about disclosure of a mental health condition to the immediate supervisor in the workplace shortly after starting a new job.

METHODS

A qualitative descriptive design was employed to explore participants' experiences of the disclosure decision-making process, the disclosure event itself (if applicable), and their perceptions of the impact of the decision on personal, interpersonal, and organizational outcomes. The transcripts were coded and analyzed using directed content analysis.

RESULTS

Twenty-eight participants were purposively selected to represent different disclosure decisions, sex, diagnoses, and maintenance of employment. Analysis identified goals and conditions/context were important antecedents for the disclosure decision. All participants discussed concerns about prejudice and discrimination if they disclosed, and, for those who chose to disclose, high stress and anxiety were described during the disclosure event; however, supervisor reactions were generally described as positive.

CONCLUSIONS

Regardless of the disclosure strategy adopted, participants reported that their disclosure decision helped to support their self-acceptance and recovery. For those who disclosed, most perceived a positive response by their supervisor. However, the pervasive concerns of prejudice indicate there is still much work to be done.IMPLICATIONS FOR REHABILITATIONDecision-making about disclosure of a mental health condition to the immediate supervisor in the workplace is a complex process.Disclosure goals, the relationship with the supervisor and the workplace context are important antecedents to the disclosure decision.Careful consideration should be given to the planning of disclosure, particularly related to what information will be shared, how it will be shared, and an appropriate level of emotional content to enhance the likelihood of a positive response from the supervisor.Disclosure planning should take the supervisor's style and organizational norms into account.

Motivational Conflict and Volitional Career Actions in Young Adults: Ego Depletion as an Explanatory Mechanism

We assessed the underlying mechanisms through which career motivational conflict was related

to career volitional action in young adults. We tested a model in which career motivational conflict (parent-child career incongruence and career goal progress discrepancy) was related to reduced career volitional actions (career decision self-efficacy and career engagement) via self-regulatory failure (ego depletion in reference to talking to parents about their careers or thinking about their careers). Participants were 260 young adults (75.8% female; M age = 19.89 years) enrolled at a large, multi-campus university in South-East Queensland, Australia. We confirmed greater career-related motivational conflict, in both forms, was associated with lower volitional actions. Furthermore, self-referenced depletion explained the relationships between career goal progress discrepancy and poorer career decision self-efficacy and less career engagement. These findings have implications for how counsellors might assist young people to improve their career volitional actions by reducing the effects of career motivational conflict.

Bargaining and gendered authority: a framework to understand household decision-making about childhood vaccines in the Philippines

Introduction

Targeted vaccination promotion efforts aimed at building vaccine confidence require an in-depth understanding of how and by whom decisions about vaccinating children are made. While several studies have highlighted how parents interact with other stakeholders when discussing childhood vaccination, less is known about the way in which vaccination uptake is negotiated within households.

Methods

We conducted 44 in-depth interviews with caregivers of children under five in the Philippines who had delayed or refused vaccination. Interviews were conducted between August 2020 and March 2021 and were audio-recorded, transcribed verbatim and translated into English. Notions of intra-household vaccination bargaining emerged early during systematic debriefings and were probed more pointedly throughout data collection.

Results

Parents as well as paternal and maternal families proved to be dominant stakeholders in intra-household bargaining for childhood vaccination. Although bargaining among these stakeholders was based on engrained, gender-based power imbalances, disadvantaged stakeholders could draw on a range of interrelated sources of bargaining power to nevertheless shape decision-making. Sources of bargaining power included, in descending order of their relevance for vaccination, (1) physical presence at the household (at the time of vaccination decision-making), (2) interest in the topic of vaccination and conviction of one’s own position, (3) previous vaccination and caregiving experience, and (4) access to household resources (including finances). The degree to which each household member could draw on these sources of bargaining power varied considerably over time and across households.

Conclusion

Our findings highlight how bargaining due to intra-household disagreement coins decisions regarding childhood vaccination. Considering the risks for public health associated with vaccine hesitancy globally, we advocate for acknowledging intra-household dynamics in research and practice, such as by purposefully targeting household members with decision-making capacity in vaccination promotion efforts, aligning promotion efforts with available bargaining capacity or further empowering those convinced of vaccination.

Emotion Appraisals and Coping with Secrets

Secrecy is both common and consequential. Recent work suggests that personal experiences with secrets (i.e., mind-wandering to them outside of concealment contexts), rather than concealment (within conversations), can explain the harms of secrecy. Recent work has also demonstrated that secrecy is associated with emotions that center on self-evaluation-shame and guilt. These emotions may help explain the harms of secrecy and provide a point of intervention to improve coping with secrecy. Four studies with 800 participants keeping over 10,500 secrets found that shame surrounding a secret is associated with lower perceived coping efficacy and reduced well-being. Moreover, shifting appraisals away from shame improved perceptions of efficacy in coping with secrets, which was linked with higher well-being. These studies suggest that emotions surrounding secrets can harm well-being and highlight avenues for intervention.

Reward Salience and Choice in a Controlling Context: A Lab Experiment

One of the challenges in the motivation literature is examining the simultaneous effect of different motivational mechanisms on overall motivation and performance. The motivational congruence theory addresses this by stipulating that different motivational mechanisms can reinforce each other if they have similar effects on the perceived locus of causality. Reward salience and choice are two motivational mechanisms which their joint effects have been long debated. Built upon the motivational congruence effect, a recent empirical study affirms that a salient reward in a condition characterized by lack of choice and a non-salient reward in a condition characterized by provision of choice both increase overall motivation and performance. In this study, we examine the effect of reward salience and choice on overall motivation and performance in a controlling context, an effect which has not been studied before. A 2 (choice: present, absent) × 3 (reward: salient, non-salient, none) factorial design was conducted to examine research hypotheses. The results show that under controlling conditions, salient reward improves overall motivation and performance compared to non-salient and no-reward conditions.

Concealment behaviors in Korean adults with epilepsy: Their relationships to social anxiety and seizure severity independent of felt stigma

PURPOSE

This study assessed whether seizure severity and social anxiety were related to self-disclosure or concealment behaviors independent of felt stigma in Korean adults with epilepsy.

METHODS

This multicenter, cross-sectional study used the Disclosure Management Scale (DMS), the short forms of the Social Phobia Scale (SPS-6) and Social Interaction Anxiety Scale (SIAS-6), and the Stigma Scale-Revised to evaluate Korean adults with epilepsy. Seizure severity was measured as a composite variable, and multivariate linear regression analyses were performed to assess whether seizure severity and social anxiety were related to concealment behaviors.

RESULTS

The 315 subjects included 132 (41.9%) women and 183 (58.1%) men. Of these subjects, 212 (67.3%) reported rarely or never talking to others about their epilepsy, whereas only 98 (31.1%) stated that they rarely or never kept their epilepsy secret from others. Linear regression analyses showed that concealment behaviors were positively correlated with degree of social anxiety (on separate models using the SIAS-6 and SPS-6) and felt stigma, and negatively associated with level of seizure severity. Both models accounted for about 14% of the variance in DMS scores.

CONCLUSIONS

The majority of Korean adults with epilepsy choose concealment and selective disclosure strategies. Social anxiety and seizure severity along with felt stigma play significant roles in deciding whether to disclose or conceal a diagnosis of epilepsy. The explanatory power of these models was weak.

Self-Regulation of Slippery Deadlines: The Role of Procrastination in Work Performance

We investigated the causes and impact of procrastination on "slippery deadlines," where the due date is ill-defined and can be autonomously extended, using the unique applied setting of grievance arbitration across two studies. In Study One, using 3 years of observed performance data derived from Canadian arbitration cases and a survey of leading arbitrators, we examined the effect of individual differences, self-regulatory skills, workloads and task characteristics on time delay. Observed delay here is a critical criterion, where justice is emphasized to be swift and sure. Multilevel Modeling established trait procrastination as a substantive predictor of observed delay, equivalent to the environmental contributors of expediting the arbitration procedure or grievance complexity. Also, despite substantive negative consequence of delay for both arbitrators and their clients, arbitrators who scored one standard deviation above the mean in procrastination took approximately 83 days to write their decisions compared to the 26 days for arbitrators one standard deviation below the mean. In Study Two, we conducted a replication and extension survey with a much larger group of American arbitrators. Consistent with Temporal Motivation Theory (TMT), trait procrastination was largely explained by expectancy, value, and sensitivity to time related traits and skills, which together accounted for majority of the variance in trait procrastination, leaving little left for other explanations. For example, perfectionism connection to procrastination appears to be distal, being largely mediated by each of TMT's core variables. Finally, procrastination was largely synonymous with a deadline pacing style, indicating that observed delay can be used as a proxy for procrastination as long as little or no prior work was done (e.g., a u-shaped pacing style is not synonymous). In all, our results indicate that procrastination is rampant in the workplace and has seriously detrimental effects.

Gender, Socioeconomic Status, Cultural Differences, Education, Family Size and Procrastination: A Sociodemographic Meta-Analysis

Procrastination describes a ubiquitous scenario in which individuals voluntarily postpone scheduled activities at the expense of adverse consequences. Steel (2007) pioneered a meta-analysis to explicitly reveal the nature of procrastination and sparked intensive research on its demographic characteristics. However, conflicting and heterogeneous findings reported in the existing literature make it difficult to draw reliable conclusions. In addition, there is still room to further investigate on more sociodemographic features that include socioeconomic status, cultural differences and procrastination education. To this end, we performed quantitative sociodemographic meta-analyses (k = 193, total n = 106,764) to fill this gap. It was found that the general tendency and academic procrastination tendency of males were stronger than females (r = 0.04, 95% CI: 0.02-0.05). No significant effects of differences in socioeconomic status (i.e., poor or rich), multiculturalism (i.e., Han nation or minorities), nationality (i.e., China or other countries), family size (i.e., one child or > 1 child), and educational background (i.e., science or arts/literature) were found to affect procrastination tendencies. Furthermore, it was noteworthy that the gender differences in procrastination tendencies were prominently moderated by measurements, which has a greater effect on the Aitken Procrastination Inventory (API) (r = 0.035, 95% CI: -0.01-0.08) than on the General Procrastination Scale (GPS) (r = 0.018, 95% CI: -0.01-0.05). In conclusion, this study provides robust evidence that males tended to procrastinate more than females in general and academic profiles, and further indicates that procrastination tendencies do not vary based on sociodemographic situations, including socioeconomic status, multiculturalism, nationality, family size, and educational background.

Interpersonal transgressions and psychological loss: Understanding moral repair as dyadic, reciprocal, and interactionist

Following interpersonal transgressions, both victims and offenders can experience psychological loss owing to threatened needs for agency and moral-social identity. Moral repair is the process by which these losses are restored. Rather than involving only intraindividual static processes, research is starting to recognize that moral repair is dyadic, reciprocal, and interactionist. It involves the victim and offender coengaging with one another, reciprocally responding to the other's psychological needs, and coconstructing a shared understanding of what has occurred, their relationship, and a way forward. Each of these steps represents periods of vulnerability where the losses of a transgression can be repaired - or exacerbated.

Status conflict in family firms: a multilevel conceptual model

Purpose

The purpose of this study is to integrate status conflict, as a relatively recent and unexplored phenomenon, to the family business literature.

Design/methodology/approach

The authors follow multilevel theory building to develop a multilevel conceptual model of status conflict in family firms (FFs).

Findings

The authors identify the main antecedents, processes and consequences of status conflict at three levels of analysis (individual, family and firm) unique to FFs. Seventeen theoretical propositions at three levels of analysis are presented.

Originality/value

The authors address the need for multilevel research for organisations and multilevel status research, contribute to the under-researched theory of conflicts in FFs and show that the conflict literature, which has predominantly focussed on the individual- and group-level factors, can borrow from the family business literature, which has primarily been oriented to the group- and firm-level factors.

The nature, motives, and perceived consequences of therapist dishonesty

Honest communication between therapists and clients is an essential part of the process and values of psychotherapy, but the topic of therapist dishonesty has remained virtually unexplored. This study examined the prevalence, motivations, and perceived consequences of therapist dishonesty. Data were compiled from a Qualtrics survey, including several open-ended questions, of 401 practicing psychotherapists. Findings revealed that virtually all respondents acknowledged having been dishonest with their clients at least once, most often about their own emotional health and their attentiveness in session, and that they were significantly more likely to engage in covert than overt dishonesty. Most felt their dishonesty was in the service of their clients' therapy or wellbeing and perceived no negative consequences of such actions. Novice therapists reported being dishonest with their clients more frequently than therapists with more experience. Directions for future research, as well as the need for training programs to introduce students to this issue, are noted.

Secretive and close? How sharing secrets may impact perceptions of distance

Having secrets is incredibly common. However, secrecy has only recently started to receive more attention in research. What has largely been neglected so far are the consequences of secret-sharing for the relationship between sharer and receiver. In this project, we aim to fill this gap. Previous research has shown that closeness can make secret-sharing more likely. Building on research from the self-disclosure and relationship literature, we experimentally investigate whether secret-sharing might in turn increase perceptions of closeness. In addition, we test the valence of the secrets shared as potential driver of the hypothesized effect, as negative secrets might signal a high level of trust, but might also present a burden to the receiver. To provide a holistic picture, we build on a variety of methods to investigate three perspectives: Study 1 focuses on the receiver and tests whether another person sharing secrets (vs. nonconfidential information) decreases distance in the eyes of the receiver. Study 2 investigates lay theories and tests how an observer perceives the relationship between two people who share secrets (vs. nonconfidential information). Study 3 tests whether these lay theories about sharing secrets are predictive of behavior, and how a sharer might choose secrets of negative or positive valence to decrease perceived distance on the receiver’s side. Our results will contribute to the understanding of how sharing secrets affects the way individuals think about each other, how close they feel to each other, and how they interact with each other.

Thinking Through Secrets: Rethinking the Role of Thought Suppression in Secrecy

Having secrets on the mind is associated with lower well-being, and a common view of secrets is that people work to suppress and avoid them-but might people actually want to think about their secrets? Four studies examining more than 11,000 real-world secrets found that the answer depends on the importance of the secret: People generally seek to engage with thoughts of significant secrets and seek to suppress thoughts of trivial secrets. Inconsistent with an ironic process account, adopting the strategy to suppress thoughts of a secret was not related to a tendency to think about the secret. Instead, adopting the strategy to engage with thoughts of a secret was related the tendency to think about the secret. Moreover, the temporal focus of one's thoughts moderated the relationship between mind-wandering to the secret and well-being, with a focus on the past exacerbating a harmful link. These results suggest that people do not universally seek to suppress their secrets; they also seek to engage with them, although not always effectively.

Motivational differences and similarities between concealment and disclosure processes

Self-concealment and self-disclosure may initially appear as the opposite sides of the same coin. Although these two constructs are related, they involve different cognitive and motivational processes. This article briefly reviews the recent literature and discusses the differences and similarities between concealment and disclosure in terms of motivational processes. An emphasis is given on self-determination theory and basic psychological needs. Future directions involve a refinement on whether concealment and disclosure differ in terms of basic need satisfaction and frustration, examining the role of self-determined and controlled motivation in secrecy, and whether self-disclosure also involves cognitively intrusive mental processes.

The relative impacts of disclosure and secrecy: the role of (perceived) target response

This review examines the current trends in understanding the impact of individuals' decisions to either disclose information or continue to conceal it. As a whole, the evidence points to a relative benefit of disclosure over secret-keeping, but with clear cases, in which disclosure may be harmful. Advances in knowledge about factors that shape that impact, new research on the role verbal rumination with a partner following disclosure, and attention to the role of communal coping as an outcome of traumatic disclosures are addressed. In addition, recent re-conceptualization of secret-keeping, and investigations into the burden experienced by confidants are reviewed. Finally, a call for greater attention to the culture-specific impacts of disclosure decisions is made.