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Arena AF, Moreton SG, Tiliopoulos N. Do mortality cues increase state autonomy? The moderating roles of trait autonomy, flexibility, and curiosity. DEATH STUDIES 2023; 48:352-360. [PMID: 37427681 DOI: 10.1080/07481187.2023.2230549] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 07/11/2023]
Abstract
This study tested the effects of deep and subtle mortality cues on state autonomy, in addition to the moderating roles of trait autonomy, psychological flexibility, and curiosity. Australian undergraduate students (N = 442) self-reported on moderator variables before being randomly allocated to receive either deep mortality cues, subtle mortality cues, or a control task, and finally reported their state autonomy for life goals. Trait autonomy did not moderate the effect of mortality cues on state autonomy. However, for individuals high on psychological flexibility, any mortality cues led to increased state autonomy compared to the control. For individuals high on curiosity, there was some evidence that only deep mortality cues led to increased state autonomy. These findings help clarify the nature of growth outcomes (in terms of more authentic, autonomous motivation for life goals), and the personal characteristics that facilitate growth-oriented processing of death awareness.
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Affiliation(s)
- Andrew F Arena
- School of Psychology, University of Sydney, Camperdown, Australia
| | - Sam G Moreton
- School of Psychology, University of Wollongong, Wollongong, Australia
| | - Niko Tiliopoulos
- School of Psychology, University of Sydney, Camperdown, Australia
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Kheibari A, Cerel J. Does self-esteem inflation mitigate mortality salience effects on suicide attitudes? Suicide Life Threat Behav 2021; 51:775-784. [PMID: 33904615 DOI: 10.1111/sltb.12759] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/08/2020] [Revised: 02/03/2021] [Accepted: 02/04/2021] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
INTRODUCTION Suicide stigma is a major barrier to prevention and intervention efforts. Using terror management theory as the guiding framework, the present study examined whether enhancing self-esteem would buffer against suicide stigma and lead to prosocial attitudes and behavior. METHODS Experimental methods were utilized in the present study. After being primed with death-related thoughts, participants were randomly assigned to one of two conditions: (1) positive feedback (experimental group) and (2) no feedback (control group). The dependent variables included (1) evaluations of a suicide decedent, (2) intentions to intervene against suicide, and (3) charitable donation behavior toward a suicide prevention organization. RESULTS The most consistent findings for the self-esteem boost hypothesis were for the interaction effects of death anxiety and self-esteem boost for the donation allocation task and intentions to intervene against suicide. For participants who were reminded of death, the self-esteem boost intervention mitigated the negative impact of death anxiety on donation behavior (i.e., an average difference of $16.37). Positive feedback for participants with reported low self-esteem also led to increased willingness to intervene against suicide. CONCLUSION These findings provide some promising potential for the self-esteem enhancement intervention to attenuate defensive reactions to suicide.
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Affiliation(s)
- Athena Kheibari
- School of Social Work, Wayne State University, Detroit, MI, USA
| | - Julie Cerel
- College of Social Work, University of Kentucky, Lexington, KY, USA
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Reed DE, Williamson RE, Wickham RE. Memento mori: Understanding existential anxiety through the existential pathway model. JOURNAL OF THEORETICAL SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY 2020. [DOI: 10.1002/jts5.79] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/07/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- David E. Reed
- Center of Innovation for Veteran‐Centered and Value‐Driven Care VA Puget Sound Health Care Seattle WA USA
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Fairlamb S, Cinnirella M. To be or not to be tolerant? A Terror Management perspective exploring the ideological dilemma of tolerance and prejudice. BRITISH JOURNAL OF SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY 2020; 60:360-382. [DOI: 10.1111/bjso.12407] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/26/2019] [Revised: 06/09/2020] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Samuel Fairlamb
- Psychology Department Royal Holloway, University of London Egham UK
| | - Marco Cinnirella
- Psychology Department Royal Holloway, University of London Egham UK
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Hubley C, Hayes J, Harvey M, Musto S. To the Victors Go the Existential Spoils: The Mental-Health Benefits of Cultural Worldview Defense for People WHO Successfully Meet Cultural Standards and Valued Goals. JOURNAL OF SOCIAL AND CLINICAL PSYCHOLOGY 2020. [DOI: 10.1521/jscp.2020.39.4.274] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/07/2023]
Abstract
Introduction: Research in support of terror management theory suggests that mortality concerns will activate symbolic defenses associated with cultural worldviews, and when these defenses are activated, mental health will benefit. However, no study to date has examined this process in full. We filled this gap, while testing the moderating effect of feeling successful vis-à-vis cultural value-standards. Method: In two studies, we hypothesized that participants who feel successful at meeting cultural standards would engage cultural worldview defense (WVD) following mortality salience (MS), and as a consequence of their defensiveness, would experience greater mental health. Results: In Study 1, MS increased pro-American WVD only among relatively wealthy participants, which in turn reduced death-thought accessibility. In Study 2, MS increased pro-American WVD only among participants primed with felt success (vs. failure), which in turn reduced anxiety and depression. Conclusions: Culture can relieve death-related distress and promote mental health to the extent that it provides feelings of success.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | - Mary Harvey
- University of Waterloo, Waterloo, ON, Canada
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A double-edged sword: when does identity threat affect unethical behavior? JOURNAL OF MANAGEMENT & ORGANIZATION 2019. [DOI: 10.1017/jmo.2019.80] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/05/2022]
Abstract
Abstract
Although individuals have different kinds of defensive strategies towards identity threat, the relationship between identity threat and unethical behavior is still unclear. In the current study, according to identity threat and self-affirmation theory, we propose and test the role of publicness of identity threat in determining whether identity threat will lead to unethical behavior. One online experiment with 197 participants (mixed design) and one laboratory experiment with 86 participants (between-subject design) are used to test our hypotheses. Our findings reveal that when individuals' identity threat is from the public sphere, it will increase their unethical behavior, but when such a threat is from the private sphere, it will reduce their unethical behavior. Theoretical and practical implications are discussed.
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Vail KE, Soenke M, Waggoner B, Mavropoulou I. Natural, But Not Supernatural, Literal Immortality Affirmation Attenuates Mortality Salience Effects on Worldview Defense in Atheists. PERSONALITY AND SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY BULLETIN 2019; 46:312-326. [PMID: 31189408 DOI: 10.1177/0146167219855051] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/15/2022]
Abstract
The present research explored whether atheists managing death awareness would be effectively buffered by affirmations of supernatural and/or natural literal immortality. Prior data were reanalyzed, revealing ambiguous results, so further experiments were conducted. In Study 1 (n = 382), atheists were randomly assigned to a supernatural afterlife-confirmed (vs. afterlife-disconfirmed) prime, an MS (vs. control topic) prime, and then given an opportunity to engage in secular worldview defense. In Study 2 (n = 360), atheists were randomly assigned to supernatural (afterlife) versus natural (medical indefinite life extension; MILE) immortality prime, an MS (vs. control topic) prime, and then given an opportunity to engage in secular worldview defense. Atheists managing death awareness increased worldview defense in the supernatural/afterlife conditions but that effect was eliminated in the MILE condition. These findings are consistent with the terror management theory perspective on worldview defense. Implications for theory and research are discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Melissa Soenke
- California State University Channel Islands, Camarillo, USA
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Zeng T, Tse CS. Does the mortality salience effect on worldview defence depend on the cultural orientation of Chinese people? INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF PSYCHOLOGY 2018; 55:291-304. [PMID: 30592038 DOI: 10.1002/ijop.12562] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/03/2018] [Accepted: 11/24/2018] [Indexed: 11/07/2022]
Abstract
According to the terror management theory, people tend to favour their worldview and in-group members after being reminded of death (i.e., mortality salience [MS] effect). However, inconsistent findings of the MS effect were found among Chinese people. In the present study, we examined the MS effect with Chinese samples and tested whether the effect would depend on participants' cultural orientation and relational self-esteem. In Studies 1 (N = 227) and 2 (N = 221), we examined the roles of participants' cultural orientations and relational self-esteem in their evaluations on moral transgression and/or perceived regard from people around after being primed with mortality (vs. dental pain) salience. We obtained the interaction effects of mortality salience, cultural orientations, and relational self-esteem. The implications of these results are discussed in the context of Chinese culture.
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Affiliation(s)
- Taoran Zeng
- Department of Educational Psychology, The Chinese University of Hong Kong, Shatin, Hong Kong
| | - Chi-Shing Tse
- Department of Educational Psychology, The Chinese University of Hong Kong, Shatin, Hong Kong
- Centre for Learning Sciences and Technologies, The Chinese University of Hong Kong, Shatin, Hong Kong
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Luo S, Yu D, Han S. 5-HTTLPR moderates the association between interdependence and brain responses to mortality threats. Hum Brain Mapp 2017; 38:6157-6171. [PMID: 28921740 DOI: 10.1002/hbm.23819] [Citation(s) in RCA: 37] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/23/2017] [Revised: 08/10/2017] [Accepted: 09/08/2017] [Indexed: 12/30/2022] Open
Abstract
While behavioral research suggests an association between cultural worldview and decreased anxiety of death, the underlying neurobiological mechanisms remain unclear. Using functional MRI, we investigated whether and how the serotonin transporter promoter polymorphism (5-HTTLPR), which has been associated with mental disorders such as anxiety and depression, moderates the associations between a cultural trait (i.e., interdependence) and self-report of death anxiety/depression and between interdependence and brain responses to mortality threats. Long/long and short/short allele carriers of the 5-HTTLPR were scanned using fMRI while they performed a one-back task on death-related, death-unrelated negative, and neutral words. Participants' interdependence and death anxiety/depression were assessed using questionnaires after scanning. We found that participants who assessed themselves with greater interdependence reported lower death anxiety/depression and showed decreased neural response to death-related words in emotion-related brain regions including the anterior cingulate, putamen, and thalamus. However, these results were evident in long/long allele carriers of the 5-HTTLPR but not in short/short allele carriers who even showed positive associations between interdependence and neural activities in the anterior cingulate, putamen and thalamus in response to death-related words. Our findings suggest candidate mechanisms for explaining the complex relationship between genotype, cultural traits, and mental/neural responses to mortality threats. Hum Brain Mapp 38:6157-6171, 2017. © 2017 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.
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Affiliation(s)
- Siyang Luo
- Department of Psychology, Guangdong Key Laboratory of Social Cognitive Neuroscience and Mental Health, and Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Brain Function and Disease, Sun Yat-Sen University, Guangzhou, 510006, China
| | - Dian Yu
- School of Psychological and Cognitive Sciences, PKU-IDG/McGovern Institute for Brain Research, Beijing Key Laboratory of Behavior and Mental Health, Peking University, Beijing, 100871, China
| | - Shihui Han
- School of Psychological and Cognitive Sciences, PKU-IDG/McGovern Institute for Brain Research, Beijing Key Laboratory of Behavior and Mental Health, Peking University, Beijing, 100871, China
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Abstract
A case is made for the substitutability of self-esteem regulation mechanisms such as cognitive dissonance reduction, self-affirmation, and social comparison. For example, a threat to self via cognitive dissonance might be reduced by a favorable social comparison outcome. To explain substitution, it is suggested that self-esteem regulation mechanisms inevitably produce affect and that affect mediates the completion of various self-esteem regulation processes. Substitution can be understood in terms of the transfer of affect from the initial mechanism to the substitute mechanism. To be effective, this transfer must take place without awareness. Also discussed is the substitution of self-esteem regulation mechanisms across different self-domains versus within a single self-domain. Current theory suggests that substitution might be more effective within domain; that is, it is better to bolster the aspect of self that has been threatened. It is suggested here, however, that substitution across self-domain might be relatively resilient and easier to accomplish.
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Jonas E, Schimel J, Greenberg J, Pyszczynski T. The Scrooge Effect: Evidence that Mortality Salience Increases Prosocial Attitudes and Behavior. PERSONALITY AND SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY BULLETIN 2016. [DOI: 10.1177/014616702236834] [Citation(s) in RCA: 255] [Impact Index Per Article: 31.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
From the perspective of terror management theory, reminders of mortality should intensify the desire to express culturally prescribed prosocial attitudes and engage in culturally prescribed prosocial behaviors. Two studies supported these hypotheses. In Study 1, people were interviewed in close proximity to a funeral home or several blocks away and were asked to indicate their attitudes toward two charities they deemed important. Those who were interviewed in front of the funeral home reported more favorability toward these charities than those who were interviewed several blocks away. In Study 2, the authors found that following mortality salience, people gave more money to a charity supporting an American cause than people who had been exposed to an aversive control topic. However, mortality salience had no effect on the amount of money given to a foreign cause. Practical and theoretical implications are discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Eva Jonas
- Ludwig-Maximilians-Universität München,
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Jonas E, Greenberg J, Frey D. Connecting Terror Management and Dissonance Theory: Evidence that Mortality Salience Increases the Preference for Supporting Information after Decisions. PERSONALITY AND SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY BULLETIN 2016; 29:1181-9. [PMID: 15189612 DOI: 10.1177/0146167203254599] [Citation(s) in RCA: 56] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
From the perspective of terror management theory, reminders of mortality should intensify the desire to pursue cognitive consistency. The authors investigated this notion with regard to dissonance theory starting from the finding of research on “selective exposure to information” that after having made a decision, people prefer consonant over dissonant information. The authors found that following mortality salience, people indeed showed an increased preference for information that supported their decision compared to information conflicting with it. However, this only occurred with regard to a worldview-relevant decision case. For a fictitious decision scenario, mortality salience did not affect information seeking. Practical and theoretical implications are discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Eva Jonas
- Department of Psychology, Social Psychology, Ludwig-Maximilians-Universität München, Germany.
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Goren C, Neter E. Stereotypical thinking as a mediating factor in the association between exposure to terror and post-traumatic stress disorder symptoms among Israeli youth. ANXIETY STRESS AND COPING 2016; 29:644-59. [DOI: 10.1080/10615806.2016.1138288] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/22/2022]
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Rogers R, Vess M, Routledge C, Juhl J. Mortality Salience Decreases Social Exploration When People Experience Metacognitive Ease Generating Examples of Cultural Value Adherence. SELF AND IDENTITY 2016. [DOI: 10.1080/15298868.2015.1080182] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/23/2022]
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Wisman A, Heflick NA. Hopelessly mortal: The role of mortality salience, immortality and trait self-esteem in personal hope. Cogn Emot 2015; 30:868-89. [DOI: 10.1080/02699931.2015.1031643] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/23/2022]
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16
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Du H, Jonas E. Being modest makes you feel bad: effects of the modesty norm and mortality salience on self-esteem in a collectivistic culture. Scand J Psychol 2014; 56:86-98. [PMID: 25346396 DOI: 10.1111/sjop.12175] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/09/2013] [Accepted: 08/24/2014] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
Terror management research shows that existential terror motivates people to live up to social norms. According to terror management theory (TMT), people can achieve a sense of self-worth through compliance with social norms. However, this has not yet been empirically tested. Modesty has long been known as an important social norm in Eastern cultures, such as China, Japan, and Korea. The current research examined whether conforming to the modesty norm in response to reminders of death concerns increases self-esteem for Chinese. In Study 1, following the modesty norm (i.e., explicit self-effacement) led to decreased implicit self-esteem, however, this was only the case if mortality was salient. In Study 2, violating the modesty norm (i.e., explicit self-enhancement) increased implicit self-esteem - however - again, this was only the case when mortality was salient. These findings indicate that self-esteem cannot be maintained through compliance with the modesty norm. Implications of this research for understanding the interplay between self-esteem and social norms in terror management processes are discussed.
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Abstract
Terror Management Theory predicts that mortality salience (MS) instigates cultural worldview defenses, especially among individuals with lower self-esteem. That MS intensifies positive evaluations of pro-U.S. essay authors, and negative evaluations of anti-U.S. essay authors have been documented as supportive evidence. However, the evidence to date may have been limited to where praising for the former and rejection of the latter authors is consistent with a shared cultural script and thus normative. In the case of Australian people, the cultural script of cringe prescribes them to evaluate their country modestly and to reject high praise of their country. We therefore predicted that MS (vs. control) should lead Australians, with low self-esteem in particular, to evaluate pro-Australia essay authors less positively while not affecting their evaluations of anti-Australia essay authors. Results from two studies were consistent with this prediction. It is important to distinguish MS effects on adherence to cultural norms from those on reaffirming collective self-esteem, and to consider relevant cultural scripts when interpreting evidence for worldview defenses.
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Juhl J, Routledge C. The effects of trait self-esteem and death cognitions on worldview defense and search for meaning. DEATH STUDIES 2014; 38:62-68. [PMID: 24521047 DOI: 10.1080/07481187.2012.718038] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/03/2023]
Abstract
Terror management theory asserts that attaining self-esteem by adhering to the standards of meaning-providing worldviews helps manage death concerns. Research has shown that mortality salience (MS) increases worldview defense, however, there are conflicting results concerning how trait self-esteem moderates this effect. Studies 1 and 2 demonstrated that MS increases worldview defense for high, but not low, trait self-esteem individuals. These studies raised the question as to whether those with low trait self-esteem engage in efforts to find meaning in response to MS. Study 3 showed that MS increased the search for meaning for low, but not high, trait self-esteem individuals.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jacob Juhl
- a Department of Psychology , North Dakota State University , Fargo , North Dakota , USA
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Du H, Jonas E, Klackl J, Agroskin D, Hui EK, Ma L. Cultural influences on terror management: Independent and interdependent self-esteem as anxiety buffers. JOURNAL OF EXPERIMENTAL SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY 2013. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jesp.2013.06.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 34] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/26/2022]
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Wichman AL, Brunner RP, Weary G. Uncertainty Threat and Inhibition of Compensatory Behaviors: A Goal Conflict Management Perspective. SELF AND IDENTITY 2013. [DOI: 10.1080/15298868.2013.775718] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/27/2022]
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Zhu L(L, Martens JP, Aquino K. Third party responses to justice failure. ORGANIZATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY REVIEW 2012. [DOI: 10.1177/2041386611434655] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
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Edmondson D, Chaudoir SR, Mills MA, Park CL, Holub J, Bartkowiak JM. From Shattered Assumptions to Weakened Worldviews: Trauma Symptoms Signal Anxiety Buffer Disruption. JOURNAL OF LOSS & TRAUMA 2011; 16:358-385. [PMID: 24077677 DOI: 10.1080/15325024.2011.572030] [Citation(s) in RCA: 43] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/18/2022]
Abstract
The fundamental assertion of worldview-based models of posttraumatic stress disorder is that trauma symptoms result when traumatic experiences cannot be readily assimilated into previously held worldviews. In two studies, we test the anxiety buffer disruption hypothesis, which states that trauma symptoms result from the disruption of normal death anxiety-buffering functions of worldview. In Study 1, participants with trauma symptoms greater than the cutoff for PTSD evinced greater death-thought accessibility than those with sub-clinical or negligible symptoms after a reminder of death. In Study 2, participants with clinically significant trauma symptoms showed no evidence of worldview defense though death-thoughts were accessible. These results support the anxiety buffer disruption hypothesis, and suggest an entirely new approach to experimental PTSD research.
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Affiliation(s)
- Donald Edmondson
- Center for Behavioral Cardiovascular Health, Columbia University Medical Center
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Webster RJ, Saucier DA. The effects of death reminders on sex differences in prejudice toward gay men and lesbians. JOURNAL OF HOMOSEXUALITY 2011; 58:402-426. [PMID: 21360393 DOI: 10.1080/00918369.2011.546735] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/30/2023]
Abstract
Terror management research shows that death reminders (mortality salience) increase prejudice toward worldview violators. Two studies investigated whether death reminders exacerbated differences in heterosexual men's and women's reports of sexual prejudice (negative attitudes based on sexual orientation). Results showed that following death reminders, sex differences in anti-gay discrimination and affective prejudice toward gay men (but not toward lesbians) were larger, and that these increased sex differences were mediated by gender role beliefs. The current studies suggest that researchers may attenuate the effects of death reminders by lessening the perceived worldview violation in addition to alleviating the existential terror of death.
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Affiliation(s)
- Russell J Webster
- Department of Psychology, Kansas State University, Manhattan, Kansas 66506, USA.
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Beatson RM, Halloran MJ. Humans rule! The effects of creatureliness reminders, mortality salience and self-esteem on attitudes towards animals. BRITISH JOURNAL OF SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY 2010; 46:619-32. [PMID: 17877855 DOI: 10.1348/014466606x147753] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/12/2022]
Abstract
This research paper presents findings from an experimental investigation of the attitudes that people hold towards animals when they are reminded of the fact that humans and animals are creatures alike. We tested the hypothesis that mortality salience (MS) would lead participants reminded of human creatureliness to evaluate animals more negatively, especially when they reported lower self-esteem. Student participants were randomly assigned to conditions in which MS was made salient and thoughts about human creatureliness were manipulated. Participants then reported their attitudes towards animals. Lending support to the hypothesis of this study, MS led participants with lower self-esteem to rate animals more negatively, when they were reminded of human-animal similarity. The implications of these results for understanding people's attitudes towards animals were discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ruth M Beatson
- School of Psychological Science, La Trobe University, Bundoora, Victoria 3083, Australia.
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Burke BL, Martens A, Faucher EH. Two decades of terror management theory: a meta-analysis of mortality salience research. PERSONALITY AND SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY REVIEW 2010; 14:155-95. [PMID: 20097885 DOI: 10.1177/1088868309352321] [Citation(s) in RCA: 442] [Impact Index Per Article: 31.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
A meta-analysis was conducted on empirical trials investigating the mortality salience (MS) hypothesis of terror management theory (TMT). TMT postulates that investment in cultural worldviews and self-esteem serves to buffer the potential for death anxiety; the MS hypothesis states that, as a consequence, accessibility of death-related thought (MS) should instigate increased worldview and self-esteem defense and striving. Overall, 164 articles with 277 experiments were included. MS yielded moderate effects (r = .35) on a range of worldview- and self-esteem-related dependent variables (DVs), with effects increased for experiments using (a) American participants, (b) college students, (c) a longer delay between MS and the DV, and (d) people-related attitudes as the DV. Gender and self-esteem may moderate MS effects differently than previously thought. Results are compared to other reviews and examined with regard to alternative explanations of TMT. Finally, suggestions for future research are offered.
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Taubman-Ben-Ari O, Findler L. Motivation for Military Service: A Terror Management Perspective. MILITARY PSYCHOLOGY 2009. [DOI: 10.1207/s15327876mp1802_4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/31/2022]
Affiliation(s)
| | - Liora Findler
- School of Social Work, Bar-Ilan University, Ramat Gan, Israel
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Knowles ML, Lucas GM, Molden DC, Gardner WL, Dean KK. There’s No Substitute for Belonging: Self-Affirmation Following Social and Nonsocial Threats. PERSONALITY AND SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY BULLETIN 2009; 36:173-86. [DOI: 10.1177/0146167209346860] [Citation(s) in RCA: 48] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
Feelings of belonging are closely linked to feelings of self-esteem. This article examines whether these feelings are regulated in a similar manner. Research on self-esteem maintenance shows that self-enhancement strategies are interchangeable; self-esteem threats in one domain instigate indirect self-affirmations in unrelated domains that effectively replace needs to directly address the original threats. From this perspective, when self-esteem threats arise from a lack of belonging, indirect self-affirmations should again be both preferred and effective. However, belonging regulation may be distinct from self-esteem regulation. From this belonging maintenance perspective, indirect affirmations that enhance esteem, but do not directly repair belonging, may be relatively less preferred and effective following belonging threats. Supporting the belonging maintenance perspective, four studies demonstrated that whereas intelligence threats tended to elicit indirect self-affirmations, belonging threats elicited relatively more direct self-affirmations. Furthermore, whereas indirect affirmation strategies effectively repaired intelligence threats they did not effectively repair belonging threats.
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The promise and peril of self-affirmation in de-escalation of commitment. ORGANIZATIONAL BEHAVIOR AND HUMAN DECISION PROCESSES 2008. [DOI: 10.1016/j.obhdp.2007.12.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 87] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
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Renkema LJ, Stapel DA, Maringer M, van Yperen NW. Terror Management and Stereotyping: Why Do People Stereotype When Mortality Is Salient? PERSONALITY AND SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY BULLETIN 2008; 34:553-64. [DOI: 10.1177/0146167207312465] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
Three studies examine two routes by which mortality threats may lead to stereotyping. Mortality salience may activate both a comprehension goal and an enhancement goal. Enhancement goals are likely to be more active in situations where intergroup competition or conflict is salient. If this is not the case, then a comprehension goal will predominate. In line with a why-determines-how logic, when mortality salience activates a comprehension goal, both positive and negative stereotyping occur. In contrast, the activation of an enhancement goal only increases negative stereotyping.
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Gailliot MT, Schmeichel BJ, Maner JK. Differentiating the effects of self-control and self-esteem on reactions to mortality salience. JOURNAL OF EXPERIMENTAL SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY 2007. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jesp.2006.10.011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 40] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
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van den Bos K, Euwema MC, Poortvliet PM, Maas M. Uncertainty Management and Social Issues: Uncertainty as an Important Determinant of Reactions to Socially Deviating People. JOURNAL OF APPLIED SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY 2007. [DOI: 10.1111/j.1559-1816.2007.00235.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
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Landau MJ, Solomon S, Pyszczynski T, Greenberg J. On the Compatibility of Terror Management Theory and Perspectives on Human Evolution. EVOLUTIONARY PSYCHOLOGY 2007. [DOI: 10.1177/147470490700500303] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Terror management theory (TMT) posits that the uniquely human awareness of death gives rise to a potential for debilitating terror, which is averted by the construction and maintenance of cultural worldviews. Over 300 studies have supported hypotheses derived from TMT. In a recent critique of TMT, Navarrete and Fessler (2005) argued that TMT is inconsistent with contemporary evolutionary biology and that the evidence supporting TMT can be better accounted for by an alternative “coalitional psychology” (CP), which posits a domain general mechanism whereby a wide range of adaptive threats activate an even wider range of judgments and behaviors all directed toward sustaining unspecified coalitions. In this paper, we argue that: a) Navarrete and Fessler do not adequately present either TMT or the empirical evidence in support of it; b) TMT is in no way inconsistent with modern evolutionary biology; and c) CP is not theoretically plausible and cannot provide a convincing empirical account of evidence supporting TMT. The broader goal of this paper is to encourage evolutionary theorists to move beyond overly simplistic alternatives that target superficial portrayals of TMT and the evidence supporting it, and contribute to a more useful integration of TMT and its findings with evolutionary thinking about culture and human social behavior.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mark J. Landau
- Department of Psychology, University of Kansas, Lawrence, KS, 66045, USA
| | - Sheldon Solomon
- Department of Psychology, Skidmore College, Saratoga Springs, NY, 12866, USA
| | - Tom Pyszczynski
- Department of Psychology, University of Colorado at Colorado Springs, CO, 80919, USA
| | - Jeff Greenberg
- Department of Psychology, University of Arizona, Tucson, AZ, 85721, USA
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Roese NJ, Olson JM. Better, Stronger, Faster: Self-Serving Judgment, Affect Regulation, and the Optimal Vigilance Hypothesis. PERSPECTIVES ON PSYCHOLOGICAL SCIENCE 2007; 2:124-41. [PMID: 18552989 PMCID: PMC2429993 DOI: 10.1111/j.1745-6916.2007.00033.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 103] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
Self-serving judgments, in which the self is viewed more favorably than other people, are ubiquitous. Their dynamic variation within individuals may be explained in terms of the regulation of affect. Self-serving judgments produce positive emotions, and threat increases self-serving judgments (a compensatory pattern that restores affect to a set point or baseline). Perceived mutability is a key moderator of these judgments; low mutability (i.e., the circumstance is closed to modification) triggers a cognitive response aimed at affect regulation, whereas high mutability (i.e., the circumstance is open to further modification) activates direct behavioral remediation. Threats often require immediate response, whereas positive events do not. Because of this brief temporal window, an active mechanism is needed to restore negative (but not positive) affective shifts back to a set point. Without this active reset, an earlier threat would make the individual less vigilant toward a new threat. Thus, when people are sad, they aim to return their mood to baseline, often via self-serving judgments. We argue that asymmetric homeostasis enables optimal vigilance, which establishes a coherent theoretical account of the role of self-serving judgments in affect regulation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Neal J Roese
- University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, London, Ontario, Canada
| | - James M Olson
- University of Western Ontario, London, Ontario, Canada
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Self-esteem, belongingness, and worldview validation: Does belongingness exert a unique influence upon self-esteem? JOURNAL OF RESEARCH IN PERSONALITY 2007. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jrp.2006.04.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/23/2022]
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Pyszczynski T, Greenberg J, Solomon S, Maxfield M. On the Unique Psychological Import of the Human Awareness of Mortality: Theme and Variations. PSYCHOLOGICAL INQUIRY 2006. [DOI: 10.1080/10478400701369542] [Citation(s) in RCA: 56] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/22/2022]
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Śmieja M, Kałaska M, Adamczyk M. Scared to death or scared to love? Terror management theory and close relationships seeking. EUROPEAN JOURNAL OF SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY 2006. [DOI: 10.1002/ejsp.301] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
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The worm at the core: A terror management perspective on the roots of psychological dysfunction. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2005. [DOI: 10.1016/j.appsy.2005.07.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 43] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
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Hart J, Shaver PR, Goldenberg JL. Attachment, Self-Esteem, Worldviews, and Terror Management: Evidence for a Tripartite Security System. J Pers Soc Psychol 2005; 88:999-1013. [PMID: 15982118 DOI: 10.1037/0022-3514.88.6.999] [Citation(s) in RCA: 129] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
Abstract
On the basis of prior work integrating attachment theory and terror management theory, the authors propose a model of a tripartite security system consisting of dynamically interrelated attachment, self-esteem, and worldview processes. Four studies are presented that, combined with existing evidence, support the prediction derived from the model that threats to one component of the security system result in compensatory defensive activation of other components. Further, the authors predicted and found that individual differences in attachment style moderate the defenses. In Studies 1 and 2, attachment threats motivated worldview defense among anxiously attached participants and motivated self-enhancement (especially among avoidant participants), effects similar to those caused by mortality salience. In Studies 3 and 4, a worldview threat and a self-esteem threat caused attachment-related proximity seeking among fearful participants and avoidance of proximity among dismissing participants. The authors' model provides an overarching framework within which to study attachment, self-esteem, and worldviews.
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Affiliation(s)
- Joshua Hart
- Psychology Department, University of California, Davis, Davis, CA 95616, USA.
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40
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Johnson SL, Ballister C, Joiner TE. Hypomanic vulnerability, terror management, and materialism. PERSONALITY AND INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES 2005. [DOI: 10.1016/j.paid.2004.04.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
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Abstract
Researchers have recently questioned the benefits associated with having high self-esteem. The authors propose that the importance of self-esteem lies more in how people strive for it rather than whether it is high or low. They argue that in domains in which their self-worth is invested, people adopt the goal to validate their abilities and qualities, and hence their self-worth. When people have self-validation goals, they react to threats in these domains in ways that undermine learning; relatedness; autonomy and self-regulation; and over time, mental and physical health. The short-term emotional benefits of pursuing self-esteem are often outweighed by long-term costs. Previous research on self-esteem is reinterpreted in terms of self-esteem striving. Cultural roots of the pursuit of self-esteem are considered. Finally, the alternatives to pursuing self-esteem, and ways of avoiding its costs, are discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jennifer Crocker
- Research Center for Group Dynamics, Institute for Social Research, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI, USA.
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Schimel J, Arndt J, Banko KM, Cook A. Not All Self-affirmations Were Created Equal: The Cognitive and Social Benefits of Affirming The Intrinsic (vs. Extrinsic) Self. SOCIAL COGNITION 2004. [DOI: 10.1521/soco.22.1.75.30984] [Citation(s) in RCA: 66] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
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Pyszczynski T, Greenberg J, Solomon S, Arndt J, Schimel J. Why Do People Need Self-Esteem? A Theoretical and Empirical Review. Psychol Bull 2004; 130:435-68. [PMID: 15122930 DOI: 10.1037/0033-2909.130.3.435] [Citation(s) in RCA: 477] [Impact Index Per Article: 23.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
Abstract
Terror management theory (TMT; J. Greenberg, T. Pyszczynski, & S. Solomon, 1986) posits that people are motivated to pursue positive self-evaluations because self-esteem provides a buffer against the omnipresent potential for anxiety engendered by the uniquely human awareness of mortality. Empirical evidence relevant to the theory is reviewed showing that high levels of self-esteem reduce anxiety and anxiety-related defensive behavior, reminders of one's mortality increase self-esteem striving and defense of self-esteem against threats in a variety of domains, high levels of self-esteem eliminate the effect of reminders of mortality on both self-esteem striving and the accessibility of death-related thoughts, and convincing people of the existence of an afterlife eliminates the effect of mortality salience on self-esteem striving. TMT is compared with other explanations for why people need self-esteem, and a critique of the most prominent of these, sociometer theory, is provided.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tom Pyszczynski
- Department of Psychology, University of Colorado at Colorado Springs, Colorado Springs, CO, USA.
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Dechesne M, Pyszczynski T, Arndt J, Ransom S, Sheldon KM, van Knippenberg A, Janssen J. Literal and symbolic immortality: the effect of evidence of literal immortality on self-esteem striving in response to mortality salience. J Pers Soc Psychol 2003; 84:722-37. [PMID: 12703645 DOI: 10.1037/0022-3514.84.4.722] [Citation(s) in RCA: 152] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
Abstract
Three studies investigated the effect of encouraging participants to believe in an afterlife on the relationship between mortality salience and self-esteem striving. Participants were exposed to essays arguing either in favor of or against the existence of an afterlife, and reminded about death or a control topic. Mortality salience led to increased accuracy ratings of a positive personality description (Studies 1 and 2) and increased striving for and defense of values (Study 3) among participants who read the essay arguing against an afterlife, but not among participants who read the essay in favor of it. The implications for the terror management analysis of self-esteem, the appeal of immortality beliefs, and the interplay between self-esteem striving and spiritual pursuits are discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mark Dechesne
- Department of Social Psychology, University of Nijmegen, The Netherlands.
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Arndt J, Solomon S. The control of death and the death of control: The effects of mortality salience, neuroticism, and worldview threat on the desire for control. JOURNAL OF RESEARCH IN PERSONALITY 2003. [DOI: 10.1016/s0092-6566(02)00530-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
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Wisman A, Koole SL. Hiding in the crowd: Can mortality salience promote affiliation with others who oppose one's worldviews? J Pers Soc Psychol 2003. [DOI: 10.1037/0022-3514.84.3.511] [Citation(s) in RCA: 94] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
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Arndt J, Greenberg J, Cook A. Mortality salience and the spreading activation of worldview-relevant constructs: exploring the cognitive architecture of terror management. J Exp Psychol Gen 2002; 131:307-24. [PMID: 12214749 DOI: 10.1037/0096-3445.131.3.307] [Citation(s) in RCA: 126] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
Abstract
Seven experiments assessed the hypothesis derived from terror management theory that reminding people of their mortality would increase accessibility of constructs central to their worldview. Experiment 1 found that mortality primes, relative to control primes, increased accessibility of nationalistic constructs for men but not for women. Experiment 2 replicated this finding and also found that mortality salience increased romantic accessibility for women but not for men. Four subsequent experiments supported the role of unconscious death-related ideation in producing these effects. A final experiment demonstrated that situational primes can increase the accessibility of nationalistic constructs for women after mortality salience. The roles of situational cues and individual differences in the effects of exposure to death-related stimuli on worldview-relevant construct accessibility are discussed.
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Hirschberger G, Florian V, Mikulincer M. The anxiety buffering function of close relationships: mortality salience effects on the readiness to compromise mate selection standards. EUROPEAN JOURNAL OF SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY 2002. [DOI: 10.1002/ejsp.110] [Citation(s) in RCA: 36] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/07/2022]
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50
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Arndt J, Greenberg J, Schimel J, Pyszczynski T, Solomon S. To belong or not to belong, that is the question: Terror management and identification with gender and ethnicity. J Pers Soc Psychol 2002. [DOI: 10.1037/0022-3514.83.1.26] [Citation(s) in RCA: 110] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
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