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Wright KM, Bowyer MC, McCluskey A, Holdsworth CI. Molecular Imprinting of Benzylpiperazine: A Comparison of the Self-Assembly and Semi-Covalent Approaches. Int J Mol Sci 2023; 24:ijms24065117. [PMID: 36982195 PMCID: PMC10048891 DOI: 10.3390/ijms24065117] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/19/2023] [Revised: 03/02/2023] [Accepted: 03/04/2023] [Indexed: 03/30/2023] Open
Abstract
Molecularly imprinted polymers (MIPs) for benzylpiperazine (BZP, 1), an illicit designer drug, were developed by using both self-assembly and semi-covalent approaches. From an array of potential functional monomers (FMs) and using a combination of pre-synthetic interaction studies (by molecular modelling and NMR analysis) and binding assays, the highest performing self-assembly 1-MIPs were confirmed to result from methacrylic acid (7) as FM, ethylene glycol dimethacrylate (EGDMA) or trimethylolpropane trimethacrylate (TRIM) as crosslinkers and chloroform as the porogen and rebinding solvent at template (T): FM ratios of 1:1 and 1:2, giving imprinting factors (IF) 3 to 7. The semi-covalent 1-MIPs were designed using benzylpiperazine (4-vinylphenyl) carbamate (16) as the template-monomer adduct in combination with either EDGMA or TRIM. Our comparative analysis showed the semi-covalent polymers to have a stronger affinity for 1 (significantly lower Kd values and higher IFs) and faster uptake than the self-assembly systems. Both approaches have comparable cross-reactivity: marginal to low against cocaine (17) and morphine (18) and high against ephedrine (19) and phenylpiperazine (20). They also have comparable selectivity: highly selective towards 1 against 17, moderate against 18 and non-selective against 19. EGDMA-based self-assembly MIPs displayed a greater imprinting effect (higher IFs and NIP-to-MIP Kd ratios) than TRIM-based MIPs, while the TRIM-based semi-covalent MIP outperformed its EGDMA-based equivalent. By virtue of its modest selectivity against the test illicit drugs, 1-MIPs could potentially be used as a dummy MIP for the broad-based capture and enrichment of illicit drug blends for subsequent laboratory analysis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kathleen M Wright
- Sanitarium Health Food Company, 1 Sanitarium Drive, Berkeley Vale, NSW 2261, Australia
- School of Environmental and Life Sciences, University of Newcastle, Callaghan, NSW 2308, Australia
| | - Michael C Bowyer
- Academic Division, University of Newcastle, Ourimbah, NSW 2258, Australia
| | - Adam McCluskey
- School of Environmental and Life Sciences, University of Newcastle, Callaghan, NSW 2308, Australia
| | - Clovia I Holdsworth
- School of Environmental and Life Sciences, University of Newcastle, Callaghan, NSW 2308, Australia
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Kumar B, Kumar N, Thakur A, Kumar V, Kumar R, Kumar V. A Review on the Arylpiperazine Derivatives as Potential Therapeutics for the Treatment of Various Neurological Disorders. Curr Drug Targets 2022; 23:729-751. [DOI: 10.2174/1389450123666220117104038] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/21/2021] [Revised: 10/20/2021] [Accepted: 11/17/2021] [Indexed: 01/18/2023]
Abstract
Abstract:
Neurological disorders are disease conditions related to the neurons and central nervous system (CNS). Any kind of structural, electrical, biochemical and functional abnormalities in neurons can lead to various types of disorders like Alzheimer’s disease (AD), depression, Parkinson’s disease (PD), epilepsy, stroke, etc. Currently available medicines are symptomatic and do not treat the disease state. Thus, novel CNS active agents with the potential of complete treatment of an illness are highly desired. A range of small organic molecules are being explored as potential drug candidates for the cure of different neurological disorders. In this context, arylpiperazine has been found to be a versatile scaffold and indispensable pharmacophore in many CNS active agents. A number of molecules with arylpiperazine nucleus have been developed as potent leads for the treatment of AD, PD, depression and other disorders. The arylpiperazine nucleus can be optionally substituted at different chemical structures and offer flexibility for the synthesis of large number of derivatives. In the current review article, we have explored the role of various arylpiperazine containing scaffolds against different neurological disorders, including AD, PD, and depression. The structure-activity relationship studies were conducted for recognizing potent lead compounds. This review article may provide important clues on the structural requirements for the design and synthesis of effective molecules as curative agents for different neurological disorders.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bhupinder Kumar
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences and Natural Products, Central University of Punjab, Bathinda, Punjab, India-151401
| | - Naveen Kumar
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences and Natural Products, Central University of Punjab, Bathinda, Punjab, India-151401
| | - Amandeep Thakur
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences and Natural Products, Central University of Punjab, Bathinda, Punjab, India-151401
| | - Vijay Kumar
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences and Natural Products, Central University of Punjab, Bathinda, Punjab, India-151401
| | | | - Vinod Kumar
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences and Natural Products, Central University of Punjab, Bathinda, Punjab, India-151401
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Brito AF, Moreira LKS, Menegatti R, Costa EA. Piperazine derivatives with central pharmacological activity used as therapeutic tools. Fundam Clin Pharmacol 2018; 33:13-24. [PMID: 30151922 DOI: 10.1111/fcp.12408] [Citation(s) in RCA: 45] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/30/2018] [Revised: 08/10/2018] [Accepted: 08/21/2018] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
Medicinal chemistry is a science applied to the search and discovery of new therapeutic agents for the treatment of various diseases. Therefore, promising structures have been identified; one of these structures is the piperazine moiety, a cyclic molecule containing two nitrogen atoms in positions 1 and 4 as well as four carbon atoms. Many piperazine derivatives have central pharmacological activity that mainly involves the activation of the monoamine pathway. Thus, piperazine derivatives have been the subject of research for many central therapeutic applications, including antipsychotic, antidepressant and anxiolytic applications. Benzylpiperazine is the prototype of piperazine derivatives; this substance is the main component of recreational drugs, partly due to its stimulant and euphoric effects. This paper describes some piperazine derivatives used therapeutically as antipsychotic (clozapine), antidepressant (vortioxetine) and anxiolytic (buspirone) drugs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Adriane F Brito
- Post Graduate Program in Biological Sciences, ICB, Federal University of Goiás, Campus Samambaia, 74001-970, Goiânia, GO, Brazil
| | - Lorrane K S Moreira
- Post Graduate Program in Biological Sciences, ICB, Federal University of Goiás, Campus Samambaia, 74001-970, Goiânia, GO, Brazil
| | - Ricardo Menegatti
- Faculty of Pharmacy, Laboratory of Medicinal Pharmaceutical Chemistry, Federal University of Goiás, Goiânia, GO, Brazil
| | - Elson A Costa
- Department of Pharmacology, ICB, Federal University of Goiás, Campus Samambaia, 74001-970, 314, Goiânia, GO, Brazil
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Salga MS, Ali HM, Abdulla MA, Abdelwahab SI, ElhassanTaha MM, Yagoub U. Synthesis and gastroprotective activities of some zinc (II) complexes derived from (E)-2-(1-(2-(piperazin-1-yl)ethylimino)ethyl)phenol and (E)-4-(1-(2-(piperazin-1-yl)ethylimino)ethyl)benzene-1,3-diol Schiff bases against aspirin induced ulceration. ARAB J CHEM 2017. [DOI: 10.1016/j.arabjc.2013.05.028] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/25/2022] Open
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Anderson LS, Bell HG, Gilbert M, Davidson JE, Winter C, Barratt MJ, Win B, Painter JL, Menone C, Sayegh J, Dasgupta N. Using Social Listening Data to Monitor Misuse and Nonmedical Use of Bupropion: A Content Analysis. JMIR Public Health Surveill 2017; 3:e6. [PMID: 28148472 PMCID: PMC5311422 DOI: 10.2196/publichealth.6174] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/10/2016] [Revised: 11/02/2016] [Accepted: 01/07/2017] [Indexed: 12/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Background The nonmedical use of pharmaceutical products has become a significant public health concern. Traditionally, the evaluation of nonmedical use has focused on controlled substances with addiction risk. Currently, there is no effective means of evaluating the nonmedical use of noncontrolled antidepressants. Objective Social listening, in the context of public health sometimes called infodemiology or infoveillance, is the process of identifying and assessing what is being said about a company, product, brand, or individual, within forms of electronic interactive media. The objectives of this study were (1) to determine whether content analysis of social listening data could be utilized to identify posts discussing potential misuse or nonmedical use of bupropion and two comparators, amitriptyline and venlafaxine, and (2) to describe and characterize these posts. Methods Social listening was performed on all publicly available posts cumulative through July 29, 2015, from two harm-reduction Web forums, Bluelight and Opiophile, which mentioned the study drugs. The acquired data were stripped of personally identifiable identification (PII). A set of generic, brand, and vernacular product names was used to identify product references in posts. Posts were obtained using natural language processing tools to identify vernacular references to drug misuse-related Preferred Terms from the English Medical Dictionary for Regulatory Activities (MedDRA) version 18 terminology. Posts were reviewed manually by coders, who extracted relevant details. Results A total of 7756 references to at least one of the study antidepressants were identified within posts gathered for this study. Of these posts, 668 (8.61%, 668/7756) referenced misuse or nonmedical use of the drug, with bupropion accounting for 438 (65.6%, 438/668). Of the 668 posts, nonmedical use was discouraged by 40.6% (178/438), 22% (22/100), and 18.5% (24/130) and encouraged by 12.3% (54/438), 10% (10/100), and 10.8% (14/130) for bupropion, amitriptyline, and venlafaxine, respectively. The most commonly reported desired effects were similar to stimulants with bupropion, sedatives with amitriptyline, and dissociatives with venlafaxine. The nasal route of administration was most frequently reported for bupropion, whereas the oral route was most frequently reported for amitriptyline and venlafaxine. Bupropion and venlafaxine were most commonly procured from health care providers, whereas amitriptyline was most commonly obtained or stolen from a third party. The Fleiss kappa for interrater agreement among 20 items with 7 categorical response options evaluated by all 11 raters was 0.448 (95% CI 0.421-0.457). Conclusions Social listening, conducted in collaboration with harm-reduction Web forums, offers a valuable new data source that can be used for monitoring nonmedical use of antidepressants. Additional work on the capabilities of social listening will help further delineate the benefits and limitations of this rapidly evolving data source.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Heidi G Bell
- Gyra MediPharm ConsultingResearch Triangle Park, NCUnited States
| | | | | | | | - Monica J Barratt
- National Drug and Alcohol Research Centre, UNSW AustraliaRandwickAustralia.,Bluelight.orgDover, DEUnited States.,Kadiant AnalyticsBoston, MAUnited States
| | - Beta Win
- GlaxoSmithKlineStockley Park, MiddlesexUnited Kingdom
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6
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Katz DP, Deruiter J, Bhattacharya D, Ahuja M, Bhattacharya S, Clark CR, Suppiramaniam V, Dhanasekaran M. Benzylpiperazine: "A messy drug". Drug Alcohol Depend 2016; 164:1-7. [PMID: 27207154 DOI: 10.1016/j.drugalcdep.2016.04.010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/08/2015] [Revised: 04/01/2016] [Accepted: 04/03/2016] [Indexed: 01/02/2023]
Abstract
Designer drugs are synthetic structural analogues/congeners of controlled substances with slightly modified chemical structures intended to mimic the pharmacological effects of known drugs of abuse so as to evade drug classification. Benzylpiperazine (BZP), a piperazine derivative, elevates synaptic dopamine and serotonin levels producing stimulatory and hallucinogenic effects, respectively, similar to the well-known drug of abuse, methylenedioxymethamphetamine (MDMA). Furthermore, BZP augments the release of norepinephrine by inhibiting presynaptic autoreceptors, therefore, BZP is a "messy drug" due to its multifaceted regulation of synaptic monoamine neurotransmitters. Initially, pharmaceutical companies used BZP as a therapeutic drug for the treatment of various disease states, but due to its contraindications and abuse potential it was withdrawn from the market. BZP imparts predominately sympathomimetic effects accompanied by serious cardiovascular implications. Addictive properties of BZP include behavioral sensitization, cross sensitization, conditioned place preference and repeated self-administration. Additional testing of piperazine derived drugs is needed due to a scarcity of toxicological data and widely abuse worldwide.
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Affiliation(s)
- D P Katz
- Department of Drug Discovery and Development, Harrison School of Pharmacy, Auburn University, Auburn, AL 36849, United States.
| | - J Deruiter
- Department of Drug Discovery and Development, Harrison School of Pharmacy, Auburn University, Auburn, AL 36849, United States.
| | - D Bhattacharya
- Department of Drug Discovery and Development, Harrison School of Pharmacy, Auburn University, Auburn, AL 36849, United States.
| | - M Ahuja
- Department of Drug Discovery and Development, Harrison School of Pharmacy, Auburn University, Auburn, AL 36849, United States.
| | - S Bhattacharya
- Department of Drug Discovery and Development, Harrison School of Pharmacy, Auburn University, Auburn, AL 36849, United States.
| | - C R Clark
- Department of Drug Discovery and Development, Harrison School of Pharmacy, Auburn University, Auburn, AL 36849, United States.
| | - V Suppiramaniam
- Department of Drug Discovery and Development, Harrison School of Pharmacy, Auburn University, Auburn, AL 36849, United States.
| | - M Dhanasekaran
- Department of Drug Discovery and Development, Harrison School of Pharmacy, Auburn University, Auburn, AL 36849, United States.
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Pendergraft WF, Herlitz LC, Thornley-Brown D, Rosner M, Niles JL. Nephrotoxic effects of common and emerging drugs of abuse. Clin J Am Soc Nephrol 2014; 9:1996-2005. [PMID: 25035273 DOI: 10.2215/cjn.00360114] [Citation(s) in RCA: 72] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
Abstract
The kidneys can be injured in diverse ways by many drugs, both legal and illegal. Novel associations and descriptions of nephrotoxic effects of common and emerging drugs of abuse have appeared over the past several years. Anabolic androgenic steroids, illicitly used by athletes and others for decades to increase muscle mass and decrease body fat, are emerging as podocyte toxins given recent descriptions of severe forms of FSGS in long-term abusers. Synthetic cannabinoids, a new group of compounds with marijuana-like effects, recently became popular as recreational drugs and have been associated with an atypical form of AKI. 3,4-Methylenedioxymethamphetamine, commonly known as ecstasy, is a widely used synthetic recreational drug with mood-enhancing properties and a constellation of toxicities that can result in death. These toxic effects include hyperthermia, hypotonic hyponatremia due to its arginine vasopressin secretagogue-like effects, rhabdomyolysis, and cardiovascular collapse. Cocaine, a serotonin-norepinephrine-dopamine reuptake inhibitor that serves as an illegal stimulant, appetite suppressant, and anesthetic, also causes vasoconstriction and rhabdomyolysis. Recent adulteration of much of the world's supply of cocaine with levamisole, an antihelminthic agent with attributes similar to but distinct from those of cocaine, appears to have spawned a new type of ANCA-associated systemic vasculitis. This review discusses the nephrotoxic effects of these common and emerging drugs of abuse, of which both community and health care providers should become aware given their widespread abuse. Future investigation into pathogenetic mechanisms associated with these drugs is critical and may provide a window into ways to lessen and even prevent the nephrotoxic effects of these drugs of abuse and perhaps allow a deeper understanding of the nephrotoxicities themselves.
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Affiliation(s)
- William F Pendergraft
- UNC Kidney Center, Division of Nephrology and Hypertension, Department of Medicine, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, North Carolina; Division of Nephrology, Department of Medicine, and Vasculitis and Glomerulonephritis Clinic, Division of Nephrology, Massachusetts General Hospital, Boston, Massachusetts
| | - Leal C Herlitz
- Division of Renal Pathology, Department of Pathology and Cell Biology, Columbia University Medical Center, New York, New York
| | - Denyse Thornley-Brown
- Division of Nephrology, Department of Internal Medicine, University of Alabama at Birmingham, Birmingham, Alabama; and
| | - Mitchell Rosner
- Division of Nephrology, Department of Medicine, University of Virginia Health System, Charlottesville, Virginia
| | - John L Niles
- Division of Nephrology, Department of Medicine, and Vasculitis and Glomerulonephritis Clinic, Division of Nephrology, Massachusetts General Hospital, Boston, Massachusetts;
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Benzylpiperazine-induced acute delirium in a patient with schizophrenia and an incidental temporal meningioma. Ir J Psychol Med 2014; 28:S14-S16. [DOI: 10.1017/s0790966700011927] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/06/2022]
Abstract
AbstractBenzylpiperazine is a psychotropic compound that has been widely available until recently from licensed premises such as ‘head shops’. This report describes a case of a 48 year old man with schizophrenia who developed an acute delirium secondary to benzylpiperazine use, although he initially presented as a diagnostic conundrum. Investigation of his delirium unearthed a temporal meningioma which appears to be an incidental finding. This is the first documented case of delirium due to benzylpiperazine use. Benzylpiperazine has significant abuse potential and psychiatric complications. Its sale and possession have recently been made illegal in Ireland, which may limit its abuse in the future.
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Monteiro MS, Bastos MDL, Guedes de Pinho P, Carvalho M. Update on 1-benzylpiperazine (BZP) party pills. Arch Toxicol 2013; 87:929-47. [DOI: 10.1007/s00204-013-1057-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/25/2013] [Accepted: 04/03/2013] [Indexed: 10/26/2022]
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10
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Screening of Stimulants Including Designer Drugs in Urine Using a Liquid Chromatography Tandem Mass Spectrometry System. J Anal Toxicol 2013; 37:64-73. [DOI: 10.1093/jat/bks091] [Citation(s) in RCA: 38] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/14/2022] Open
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11
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Min CR, Kim MJ, Park YJ, Kim HR, Lee SY, Chung KH, Oh SM. Estrogenic effects and their action mechanism of the major active components of party pill drugs. Toxicol Lett 2012; 214:339-47. [PMID: 23026265 DOI: 10.1016/j.toxlet.2012.09.014] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/23/2012] [Revised: 09/17/2012] [Accepted: 09/19/2012] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
Abstract
Benzylpiperazine (BZP) and trifluoromethylphenylpiperazine (TFMPP) are commonly used constituents of party pill drugs. They are reported to induce psychoactive effects such as euphoria and provide effects similar with other illicit drugs such as methylenedioxymethamphetamine (MDMA). A great deal of evidence has proven that party pills, as alternatives for MDMA, exert harmful effects on users. However, their toxicological effects have not been fully understood and endocrine disruptive effects are still unknown. In this study, we identified estrogenic effects of BZP and TFMPP by using in vitro and in vivo assays. BZP and TFMPP stimulated cell proliferation in a dose-dependent manner, while co-treatment with tamoxifen and BZP or TFMPP showed a decrease of E(2)-induced cell proliferation. In an estrogen sensitive reporter gene assay, BZP and TFMPP significantly increased transcriptional activities of party pill drugs. In addition, ER-related genes, PR and pS2, were significantly stimulated by BZP and TFMPP. These results indicated that BZP and TFMPP could have estrogenic activities related to the ER-mediated pathway. Unlike the in vitro assay results, BZP and TFMPP did not show significant effects on weight increase in a rodent uterotrophic assay. However, further studies would be necessary to verify the estrogenic activities of BZP and TFMPP by a chronic exposure animal study.
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Affiliation(s)
- Cho Rong Min
- School of Pharmacy, Sungkyunkwan University, 300 Cheoncheon dong, Jangan-gu, Suwon, Kyeonggi-do 440-746, South Korea
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12
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Linking the pharmacological content of ecstasy tablets to the subjective experiences of drug users. Psychopharmacology (Berl) 2012; 220:751-62. [PMID: 21993879 DOI: 10.1007/s00213-011-2529-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 67] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/14/2011] [Accepted: 09/26/2011] [Indexed: 12/18/2022]
Abstract
RATIONALE Most studies on the subjective effects of ecstasy are based on the assumption that the substance that was taken is 3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine (MDMA). However, many tablets sold as ecstasy contain other substances and MDMA in varying doses. So far, few attempts have been made to take this into account while assessing subjective effects. OBJECTIVES This study aims to link the pharmacological content of tablets sold as ecstasy to the subjective experiences reported by ecstasy users. METHODS Self-reported effects on ecstasy tablets were available from 5,786 drug users who handed in their tablets for chemical analysis at the Drug Information and Monitoring System (DIMS) in the Netherlands. Logistic regression was employed to link the pharmacological content of ecstasy tablets to the self-reported subjective effects and compare effects with MDMA to other substances present. RESULTS MDMA showed a strong association with desirable subjective effects, unparalleled by any other psychoactive substance. However, the association of MDMA was dose-dependent, with higher doses (>120 mg/tablet) likely to evoke more adverse effects. The novel psychostimulants mephedrone and p-fluoroamphetamine were considered relatively desirable, whereas meta-chlorophenylpiperazine (mCPP) and p-methoxymethamphetamine (PMMA) were strongly associated with adverse subjective effects. Also, 3,4-methylene-dioxyamphetamine (MDA) and benzylpiperazine (BZP) were not appreciated as replacement for MDMA. CONCLUSION Linking the pharmacological content of ecstasy sold on the street to subjective experiences contributes to a better understanding of the wide range of subjective effects ascribed to ecstasy and provides a strong rationale for the prolonged endurance of MDMA as the key ingredient of the ecstasy market.
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BERNEY-MEYER LINDA, PUTT TRACEY, SCHOLLUM JOHN, WALKER ROBERT. Nephrotoxicity of recreational party drugs. Nephrology (Carlton) 2012; 17:99-103. [DOI: 10.1111/j.1440-1797.2011.01537.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
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14
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Watson C, Wilkinson J. The intensive care management of common and uncommon drugs of misuse. Br J Hosp Med (Lond) 2011; 72:211-8. [PMID: 21537238 DOI: 10.12968/hmed.2011.72.4.211] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/11/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Christine Watson
- Department of Anaesthesia and Critical Care, Leicester Royal Infirmary, Leicester, UK
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15
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Schep LJ, Slaughter RJ, Vale JA, Beasley DMG, Gee P. The clinical toxicology of the designer "party pills" benzylpiperazine and trifluoromethylphenylpiperazine. Clin Toxicol (Phila) 2011; 49:131-41. [PMID: 21495881 DOI: 10.3109/15563650.2011.572076] [Citation(s) in RCA: 107] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
Abstract
INTRODUCTION Benzylpiperazine (BZP) and trifluoromethylphenylpiperazine (TFMPP) are synthetic phenylpiperazine analogues. BZP was investigated as a potential antidepressant in the early 1970s but was found unsuitable for this purpose. More recently, BZP and TFMPP have been used as substitutes for amfetamine-derived designer drugs. They were legally available in a number of countries, particularly in New Zealand, and were marketed as party pills, but are now more heavily regulated. This article will review the mechanisms of toxicity, toxicokinetics, clinical features, diagnosis, and management of poisoning due to BZP and TFMPP. METHODS OVID MEDLINE and ISI Web of Science were searched systematically for studies on BZP and TFMPP and the bibliographies of identified articles were screened for additional relevant studies including nonindexed reports. Nonpeer-reviewed sources were also accessed. In all, 179 papers excluding duplicates were identified and 74 were considered relevant. MECHANISMS OF ACTION BZP and TFMPP have stimulant and amfetamine-like properties. They enhance the release of catecholamines, particularly of dopamine, from sympathetic nerve terminals, increasing intra-synaptic concentrations. The resulting elevated intra-synaptic monoamine concentrations cause increased activation of both central and peripheral α- and β-adrenergic postsynaptic receptors. BZP has primarily dopaminergic and noradrenergic action while TFMPP has a more direct serotonin agonist activity. TOXICOKINETICS There is limited information on the kinetics of these drugs. Following ingestion, peak plasma concentrations are reached after 60 to 90 min. Both drugs would be expected to cross the blood brain barrier and they are metabolized mainly by hydroxylation and N-dealkylation catalyzed by cytochrome P450 and catechol-o-methyl transferase enzymes. In humans, only small amounts of both BZP and TFMPP are excreted in the urine, suggesting a low bioavailability. The serum half-lives of BZP and TFMPP are relatively short with elimination being essentially complete in 44 h for BZP and 24 h for TFMPP. CLINICAL FEATURES These compounds can cause harmful effects when taken recreationally. Commonly reported features include palpitations, agitation, anxiety, confusion, dizziness, headache, tremor, mydriasis, insomnia, urine retention, and vomiting. Seizures are induced in some patients even at low doses. Severe multiorgan toxicity has been reported, though fatalities have not been recorded conclusively. MANAGEMENT Supportive care including the termination of seizures is paramount, with relief of symptoms usually being provided by benzodiazepines alone. CONCLUSIONS BZP and TFMP can cause sympathomimetic effects in the intoxicated patient. Appropriate, symptom-directed supportive care should ensure a good recovery.
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Affiliation(s)
- Leo J Schep
- Department of Preventive and Social Medicine, National Poisons Centre, University of Otago, Dunedin, New Zealand.
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Lin JC, Jan RK, Kydd RR, Russell BR. Subjective effects in humans following administration of party pill drugs BZP and TFMPP alone and in combination. Drug Test Anal 2011; 3:582-5. [DOI: 10.1002/dta.285] [Citation(s) in RCA: 59] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/16/2010] [Revised: 02/28/2011] [Accepted: 03/04/2011] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
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Chemical profile of meta-chlorophenylpiperazine (m-CPP) in ecstasy tablets by easy ambient sonic-spray ionization, X-ray fluorescence, ion mobility mass spectrometry and NMR. Anal Bioanal Chem 2011; 400:3053-64. [DOI: 10.1007/s00216-011-4883-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 37] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/18/2010] [Revised: 02/02/2011] [Accepted: 03/23/2011] [Indexed: 10/18/2022]
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Lin JC, Jan RK, Lee H, Jensen MA, Kydd RR, Russell BR. Determining the subjective and physiological effects of BZP combined with TFMPP in human males. Psychopharmacology (Berl) 2011; 214:761-8. [PMID: 21060995 DOI: 10.1007/s00213-010-2081-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/13/2010] [Accepted: 10/27/2010] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
RATIONALE ‘Party Pills’ containing benzylpiperazine (BZP) and trifluoromethylphenylpiperazine (TFMPP) have been used in a recreational context since the 1990s and, prior to April 2008, were legally available in New Zealand. Taken together, they have been reported to produce a ‘high’ similar to that produced by 3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine (MDMA). OBJECTIVES There has been little research on the subjective effects of piperazines in humans. The purpose of this study is to further investigate the subjective and physiological responses following an oral dose of BZP combined with TFMPP in males. METHODS In a randomised, double-blind, placebo-controlled study the subjective and physiological effects of BZP/TFMPP were investigated in 36 healthy, non-smoking males (mean age 22 ± 4 years). Participants were tested before and approximately 120 min after administration of a single dose of placebo (n = 16) or 100/30 mg BZP/TFMPP (n = 20). Participants were required to comment on the subjective effects using three rating scales—the Addiction Research Centre Inventory (ARCI), the Visual Analogue Scale (VAS) and the Profile of Mood States (POMS). Participants' blood pressure, heart rate and body temperature were also measured. RESULTS Statistical analysis using repeated-measures analysis of variance (ANOVA) and planned comparisons revealed that BZP/TFMPP significantly increases blood pressure and heart rate (p < 0.05). Likewise, the subjective rating scales revealed that BZP/TFMPP has significant dexamphetamine-like effects, increases dysphoria and feelings of self-confidence (p < 0.05). CONCLUSION These physiological and subjective data reflect clear similarities between the effects of BZP/TFMPP and commonly known stimulants such as dexamphetamine and MDMA.
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Affiliation(s)
- Joanne C Lin
- School of Pharmacy, Faculty of Medical and Health Sciences, University of Auckland, Private Bag, 92019 Auckland, New Zealand.
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BZP-party pills: a review of research on benzylpiperazine as a recreational drug. THE INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF DRUG POLICY 2011; 22:95-101. [PMID: 21242080 DOI: 10.1016/j.drugpo.2010.12.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/26/2010] [Revised: 10/20/2010] [Accepted: 12/01/2010] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND BZP-party pills are yet another 'designer drug' which mimics the stimulant qualities of amphetamines and MDMA/Ecstasy. As legal markets for the substance have developed in the last decade (especially amongst young people) so has public and governmental concern. METHODS This article provides a summary of the available international research on benzylpiperazine (BZP) and its popular use in the compound form known as 'party pills'. Through performing an analysis of the available medical and social scientific literature, the review outlines current knowledge on the compound, the prevalence of usage of BZP-party pills, as well as the associated harms, risks and rationales for use of the drug. RESULTS Despite moves towards legislative control of BZP-party pills, the evidence presented suggests limited social and health harms associated with the drug, although research on long term effects is a significant gap in the literature. It also remains inconclusive as to whether BZP-party pills act as a 'gateway' to illegal drugs or, conversely, play a role in harm reduction with illegal drug users turning to legal alternatives; there is some evidence for both positions. CONCLUSION With increasing controls of BZP-party pills, and with the increasing numbers of 'legal highs' and new designer drugs on the market, we conclude that new legal alternatives will continue to surface to replace the drug in the future. Considering a harm reduction approach to drug taking, it is suggested that policy makers consider the creation of a legal holding category which restricts and regulates the market in legal highs whilst the social and health harms associated with each drug can be thoroughly investigated.
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Chen YI, Choi JK, Xu H, Ren J, Andersen SL, Jenkins BG. Pharmacologic neuroimaging of the ontogeny of dopamine receptor function. Dev Neurosci 2010; 32:125-38. [PMID: 20523024 DOI: 10.1159/000286215] [Citation(s) in RCA: 48] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/15/2009] [Accepted: 02/09/2010] [Indexed: 01/23/2023] Open
Abstract
Characterization of the ontogeny of the cerebral dopaminergic system is crucial for gaining a greater understanding of normal brain development and its alterations in response to drugs of abuse or conditions such as attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder. Pharmacological MRI (phMRI) was used to determine the response to dopamine transporter (DAT) blockers cocaine and methylphenidate (MPH), the dopamine releaser D-amphetamine (AMPH), the selective D1 agonist dihydrexidine, and the D2/D3 agonist quinpirole in young (<30 days old) and adult (>60 days old) rats. In adult rats, cocaine (0.5 mg/kg i.v.) or MPH (2 mg/kg) induced primarily positive cerebral blood volume (rCBV) changes in the dopaminergic circuitry, but negative rCBV changes in the young animals. Microdialysis measurements in the striatum showed that young rats have a smaller increase in extracellular dopamine in response to cocaine than adults. The young rats showed little rCBV response to the selective D1 agonist dihydrexidine in contrast to robust rCBV increases observed in the adults, whereas there was a similar negative rCBV response in the young and adult rats to the D2 agonist quinpirole. We also performed a meta-analysis of literature data on the development of D1 and D2 receptors and the DAT. These data suggest a predominance of D2-like over D1-like function between 20 and 30 days of age. These combined results suggested that the dopamine D1 receptor is functionally inhibited at young age.
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Affiliation(s)
- Y Iris Chen
- Athinoula A. Martinos Center for Biomedical Imaging, Department of Radiology, Massachusetts General Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Charlestown, MA 02129, USA.
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Vogels N, Brunt TM, Rigter S, van Dijk P, Vervaeke H, Niesink RJM. Content of ecstasy in the Netherlands: 1993-2008. Addiction 2009; 104:2057-66. [PMID: 19804461 DOI: 10.1111/j.1360-0443.2009.02707.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 66] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
Abstract
AIMS The present paper outlines the results of analyses carried out on the content of tablets sold as ecstasy, collected in the Netherlands by the Drugs Information Monitoring System (DIMS) from January 1993 to December 2008. METHODS During a period of 16 years, the DIMS analysed the content of 33 006 tablets sold as ecstasy that were handed in by numerous individual (potential) substance users. The DIMS results were compared with the results from various seized tablets to determine whether the DIMS is a monitor of the ecstasy consumer market. RESULTS The DIMS system appears to be a market monitor that gives an accurate reflection of what is actually available on the hidden Dutch ecstasy market. During 16 years of monitoring, the purity [tablets containing only 3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine (MDMA)] was lowest around 1997. During this time-period many tablets contained other substances in addition to or instead of MDMA [e.g. 3,4-methylene-dioxyamphetamine (MDA), 3,4-methylene-dioxyethylamphetamine (MDEA) and N-methyl-a-(1,3-benzodixol-5-yl)-2-butamine (MBDB), amphetamine and caffeine]. From 1998 to 2008, the number of high-dose tablets (> or =106 mg MDMA per tablet) gradually increased. The same holds true for the proportion of tablets that contained only MDMA, reaching the highest levels in 2000 and 2004. After 2004, the purity of ecstasy tablets decreased again, caused mainly by a growing proportion of tablets containing meta-chlorophenylpiperazine (mCPP). CONCLUSIONS The DIMS results provide valuable qualitative information on the content of ecstasy tablets in the Netherlands, and its changes throughout the years. Moreover, the results were used for national and international risk assessments and important warning and prevention activities.
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Affiliation(s)
- Neeltje Vogels
- Department of Drug Monitoring, Program Drug Information and Monitoring System, Trimbos Institute (Netherlands Institute for Mental Health and Addiction), Utrecht, the Netherlands.
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Herbert CE, Hughes RN. A comparison of 1-benzylpiperazine and methamphetamine in their acute effects on anxiety-related behavior of hooded rats. Pharmacol Biochem Behav 2009; 92:243-50. [DOI: 10.1016/j.pbb.2008.12.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/30/2008] [Revised: 12/03/2008] [Accepted: 12/04/2008] [Indexed: 10/21/2022]
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