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Bakhshandeh M, Behroozi S, Ghorbani A. Next-generation sequencing approach to molecular diagnosis of Iranian patients with Duchenne/Becker muscular dystrophy: Several novel variants identified. eNeurologicalSci 2023; 30:100446. [PMID: 36845278 PMCID: PMC9945705 DOI: 10.1016/j.ensci.2023.100446] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/15/2022] [Revised: 01/11/2023] [Accepted: 01/21/2023] [Indexed: 01/27/2023] Open
Abstract
Duchenne muscular dystrophy (DMD) and Becker muscular dystrophy (BMD) constitute the second most prevalent muscular dystrophy, with large deletions or duplications accounting for 66% of cases. No effective treatment exists for DMD/BMD. At present, genetic diagnosis serves as the foundation for gene therapy treatments. In this study, a comprehensive molecular investigation was conducted. The subjects diagnosed with DMD/BMD were initially examined using multiplex ligation-dependent probe amplification (MLPA) technology. The negative MLPA results were analyzed further using next-generation sequencing (NGS) technology. The MLPA detected 201 deletions (65.9%) and 20 duplications (6.6%) along the dystrophin gene among the 305 Iranian patients examined. The deletion of exon 52 in the amenable skipping subgroup was associated with an earlier onset age and a more severe phenotype. Twenty-one of the small mutations found in 58 MLPA-negative patients were novel. The most prevalent variants were nonsense variants (46.5%), frameshift variants (31%), splicing variants (6.9%), missense variants (10.4%), and synonymous mutations (5.1%). Our results demonstrate that MLPA and NGS can be effective diagnostic tools for very young patients with a single exon deletion.
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Affiliation(s)
- MohammadKazem Bakhshandeh
- Hakim Children Hospital, Department of Pediatrics, Tehran University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran,Corresponding author.
| | - Samira Behroozi
- Department of Medical Genetics, National Institute of Genetic Engineering and Biotechnology (NIGEB), Tehran, Iran
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Viggiano E, Picillo E, Passamano L, Onore ME, Piluso G, Scutifero M, Torella A, Nigro V, Politano L. Spectrum of Genetic Variants in the Dystrophin Gene: A Single Centre Retrospective Analysis of 750 Duchenne and Becker Patients from Southern Italy. Genes (Basel) 2023; 14:214. [PMID: 36672955 PMCID: PMC9859256 DOI: 10.3390/genes14010214] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/07/2022] [Revised: 12/29/2022] [Accepted: 01/11/2023] [Indexed: 01/18/2023] Open
Abstract
Dystrophinopathies are X-linked recessive muscle disorders caused by mutations in the dystrophin (DMD) gene that include deletions, duplications, and point mutations. Correct diagnosis is important for providing adequate patient care and family planning, especially at this time when mutation-specific therapies are available. We report a large single-centre study on the spectrum of DMD gene variants observed in 750 patients analyzed for suspected Duchenne (DMD) or Becker (BMD) muscular dystrophy, over the past 30 years, at the Cardiomyology and Medical Genetics of the University of Campania. We found 534 (71.21%) large deletions, 73 (9.73%) large duplications, and 112 (14.93%) point mutations, of which 44 (5.9%) were small ins/del causing frame-shifts, 57 (7.6%) nonsense mutations, 8 (1.1%) splice site and 3 (0.4%) intronic mutations, and 31 (4.13%) non mutations. Moreover, we report the prevalence of the different types of mutations in patients with DMD and BMD according to their decade of birth, from 1930 to 2020, and correlate the data to the different techniques used over the years. In the most recent decades, we observed an apparent increase in the prevalence of point mutations, probably due to the use of Next-Generation Sequencing (NGS). In conclusion, in southern Italy, deletions are the most frequent variation observed in DMD and BMD patients followed by point mutations and duplications, as elsewhere in the world. NGS was useful to identify point mutations in cases of strong suspicion of DMD/BMD negative on deletions/duplications analyses. In the era of personalized medicine and availability of new causative therapies, a collective effort is necessary to enable DMD and BMD patients to have timely genetic diagnoses and avoid late implementation of standard of care and late initiation of appropriate treatment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Emanuela Viggiano
- Department of Prevention, Hygiene and Public Health Service, ASL Roma 2, 00157 Rome, Italy
| | - Esther Picillo
- Medical Genetics and Cardiomyology, Department of Precision Medicine, University of Campania “Luigi Vanvitelli”, 80138 Napoli, Italy
| | - Luigia Passamano
- Medical Genetics and Cardiomyology, Department of Precision Medicine, University of Campania “Luigi Vanvitelli”, 80138 Napoli, Italy
| | - Maria Elena Onore
- Medical Genetics and Cardiomyology, Department of Precision Medicine, University of Campania “Luigi Vanvitelli”, 80138 Napoli, Italy
| | - Giulio Piluso
- Medical Genetics and Cardiomyology, Department of Precision Medicine, University of Campania “Luigi Vanvitelli”, 80138 Napoli, Italy
| | - Marianna Scutifero
- Medical Genetics and Cardiomyology, Department of Precision Medicine, University of Campania “Luigi Vanvitelli”, 80138 Napoli, Italy
| | - Annalaura Torella
- Medical Genetics and Cardiomyology, Department of Precision Medicine, University of Campania “Luigi Vanvitelli”, 80138 Napoli, Italy
| | - Vincenzo Nigro
- Medical Genetics and Cardiomyology, Department of Precision Medicine, University of Campania “Luigi Vanvitelli”, 80138 Napoli, Italy
- Telethon Institute of Genetics and Medicine, 80078 Pozzuoli, Italy
| | - Luisa Politano
- Cardiomyology and Medical Genetics, Department of Experimental Medicine, University of Campania “Luigi Vanvitelli”, 80138 Napoli, Italy
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Genetic Analysis of Forty MLPA-Negative Duchenne Muscular Dystrophy Patients by Whole-Exome Sequencing. J Mol Neurosci 2022; 72:1098-1107. [PMID: 35218518 DOI: 10.1007/s12031-022-01980-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/18/2021] [Accepted: 01/26/2022] [Indexed: 10/19/2022]
Abstract
This manuscript aimed to determine the underlying point mutations causing Duchenne muscular dystrophy (DMD) in a heterogeneous group of Iranian patients, who are clinically suspected. Whole-exome sequencing was utilized to detect disease-causing variants in 40 MLPA-negative DMD patients. Disease-causing variants were detected in the DMD gene in 36/40 of the patients (90%), and 4/40 of them (10%) remained undiagnosed. WES analysis revealed that nonsense variant was the most common type in our study (23/36 of the cases). Besides, 12/36 of the cases had frameshift variant, and one of the patients had a likely pathogenic splice variant in the DMD gene. Carrier testing revealed that 21/40 of the mothers had the identified variant. Therefore, most variants were inherited (58.3%), while 19/40 were de novo (41. 7%). The present study has demonstrated the importance of performing WES to detect disease-causing point mutations in MLPA-negative DMD patients and to identify carrier females. Due to regulatory challenges, the clinical development of therapeutic approaches is time-consuming and may not be available to all patients shortly. Therefore, it appears that the techniques used to accurately detect disease-causing variants in carrier mothers are a more efficient solution to prevent the increased prevalence of DMD.
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Attri S, Gahlawat SK. Challenges and Advances in Molecular Diagnosis of Myopathies and Dystrophies in Perspective of Their Use in Developing Countries: Past, Present, and Future. Neurol India 2021; 69:797-807. [PMID: 34507392 DOI: 10.4103/0028-3886.325313] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/04/2022]
Abstract
Background Proper diagnosis is the first and most critical step for effective identification and treatment of myopathy and dystrophy disorders. Although various histochemical and biochemical studies have paved the way for efficient testing of these disorders, they are insufficient for accurate diagnosis. To overcome this, the diagnostic procedure has now shifted more toward the "genetic first approach," with the remarkable role played by various genetic and molecular techniques. Objective In developing countries, successful diagnosis of such disorders is affected by the shortage of hospitals, poor lab setup, limited diagnostic methods, and unavailability of technical expertise. As a major population living in developing countries faces such inadequate healthcare facilities, there has always been a need for identifying effective diagnostic techniques that could identify genetic alterations more prone in such regions. Materials and Methods This article reviews studies done in the last few years that primarily use nonsequencing-based molecular diagnosis methods to identify myopathy- and dystrophy-specific gene alterations and thus could equally hold potential for screening key genetic alterations reported in certain regions in developing countries. Further, this review deals with new emerging sequencing and next-generation sequencing (NGS)-based approach and their potential in providing an adequate diagnosis. Conclusions This study promotes nonsequencing-based molecular methods to be an effective method for early-stage diagnosis and management of myopathies and dystrophies in developing countries and suggests the high importance of emerging NGS methods in proper diagnosis and identifying new players in neuromuscular disorders.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shivangi Attri
- Department of Biotechnology, Chaudhary Devi Lal University, Sirsa, Haryana, India
| | - Suresh K Gahlawat
- Department of Biotechnology, Chaudhary Devi Lal University, Sirsa, Haryana, India
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Zamani G, Hosseini Bereshneh A, Azizi Malamiri R, Bagheri S, Moradi K, Ashrafi MR, Tavasoli AR, Mohammadi M, Badv RS, Ghahvechi Akbari M, Heidari M. The First Comprehensive Cohort of the Duchenne Muscular Dystrophy in Iranian Population: Mutation Spectrum of 314 Patients and Identifying Two Novel Nonsense Mutations. J Mol Neurosci 2020; 70:1565-1573. [DOI: 10.1007/s12031-020-01594-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/06/2020] [Accepted: 05/14/2020] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
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Shariati G, Shakerian S, Mohammadi Anaie M, Abdorasouli N, Nanvazadeh F, Sedaghat A, Sedighi M, Saberi A. Deletion and duplication mutations spectrum in Duchenne muscular dystrophy in the southwest of Iran. Meta Gene 2020. [DOI: 10.1016/j.mgene.2019.100641] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/25/2022] Open
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Amoasii L, Li H, Zhang Y, Min YL, Sanchez-Ortiz E, Shelton JM, Long C, Mireault AA, Bhattacharyya S, McAnally JR, Bassel-Duby R, Olson EN. In vivo non-invasive monitoring of dystrophin correction in a new Duchenne muscular dystrophy reporter mouse. Nat Commun 2019; 10:4537. [PMID: 31586095 PMCID: PMC6778191 DOI: 10.1038/s41467-019-12335-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/30/2018] [Accepted: 08/20/2019] [Indexed: 12/24/2022] Open
Abstract
Duchenne muscular dystrophy (DMD) is a fatal genetic disorder caused by mutations in the dystrophin gene. To enable the non-invasive analysis of DMD gene correction strategies in vivo, we introduced a luciferase reporter in-frame with the C-terminus of the dystrophin gene in mice. Expression of this reporter mimics endogenous dystrophin expression and DMD mutations that disrupt the dystrophin open reading frame extinguish luciferase expression. We evaluated the correction of the dystrophin reading frame coupled to luciferase in mice lacking exon 50, a common mutational hotspot, after delivery of CRISPR/Cas9 gene editing machinery with adeno-associated virus. Bioluminescence monitoring revealed efficient and rapid restoration of dystrophin protein expression in affected skeletal muscles and the heart. Our results provide a sensitive non-invasive means of monitoring dystrophin correction in mouse models of DMD and offer a platform for testing different strategies for amelioration of DMD pathogenesis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Leonela Amoasii
- Department of Molecular Biology, Hamon Center for Regenerative Science and Medicine, Sen. Paul D. Wellstone Muscular Dystrophy Cooperative Research Center, Watertown, MA, 02472, USA
- Exonics Therapeutics, 490 Arsenal Way, Watertown, MA, 02472, USA
| | - Hui Li
- Department of Molecular Biology, Hamon Center for Regenerative Science and Medicine, Sen. Paul D. Wellstone Muscular Dystrophy Cooperative Research Center, Watertown, MA, 02472, USA
| | - Yu Zhang
- Department of Molecular Biology, Hamon Center for Regenerative Science and Medicine, Sen. Paul D. Wellstone Muscular Dystrophy Cooperative Research Center, Watertown, MA, 02472, USA
| | - Yi-Li Min
- Department of Molecular Biology, Hamon Center for Regenerative Science and Medicine, Sen. Paul D. Wellstone Muscular Dystrophy Cooperative Research Center, Watertown, MA, 02472, USA
- Exonics Therapeutics, 490 Arsenal Way, Watertown, MA, 02472, USA
| | - Efrain Sanchez-Ortiz
- Department of Molecular Biology, Hamon Center for Regenerative Science and Medicine, Sen. Paul D. Wellstone Muscular Dystrophy Cooperative Research Center, Watertown, MA, 02472, USA
| | - John M Shelton
- Department of Internal Medicine, University of Texas Southwestern Medical Center, 5323 Harry Hines Boulevard, Dallas, TX, 75390, USA
| | - Chengzu Long
- Department of Molecular Biology, Hamon Center for Regenerative Science and Medicine, Sen. Paul D. Wellstone Muscular Dystrophy Cooperative Research Center, Watertown, MA, 02472, USA
- Leon H. Charney Division of Cardiology, New York University School of Medicine, New York, NY, 10016, USA
| | - Alex A Mireault
- Department of Molecular Biology, Hamon Center for Regenerative Science and Medicine, Sen. Paul D. Wellstone Muscular Dystrophy Cooperative Research Center, Watertown, MA, 02472, USA
| | - Samadrita Bhattacharyya
- Department of Molecular Biology, Hamon Center for Regenerative Science and Medicine, Sen. Paul D. Wellstone Muscular Dystrophy Cooperative Research Center, Watertown, MA, 02472, USA
| | - John R McAnally
- Department of Molecular Biology, Hamon Center for Regenerative Science and Medicine, Sen. Paul D. Wellstone Muscular Dystrophy Cooperative Research Center, Watertown, MA, 02472, USA
| | - Rhonda Bassel-Duby
- Department of Molecular Biology, Hamon Center for Regenerative Science and Medicine, Sen. Paul D. Wellstone Muscular Dystrophy Cooperative Research Center, Watertown, MA, 02472, USA
| | - Eric N Olson
- Department of Molecular Biology, Hamon Center for Regenerative Science and Medicine, Sen. Paul D. Wellstone Muscular Dystrophy Cooperative Research Center, Watertown, MA, 02472, USA.
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Amoasii L, Hildyard JCW, Li H, Sanchez-Ortiz E, Mireault A, Caballero D, Harron R, Stathopoulou TR, Massey C, Shelton JM, Bassel-Duby R, Piercy RJ, Olson EN. Gene editing restores dystrophin expression in a canine model of Duchenne muscular dystrophy. Science 2018; 362:86-91. [PMID: 30166439 PMCID: PMC6205228 DOI: 10.1126/science.aau1549] [Citation(s) in RCA: 351] [Impact Index Per Article: 58.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/11/2018] [Accepted: 08/17/2018] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
Abstract
Mutations in the gene encoding dystrophin, a protein that maintains muscle integrity and function, cause Duchenne muscular dystrophy (DMD). The deltaE50-MD dog model of DMD harbors a mutation corresponding to a mutational "hotspot" in the human DMD gene. We used adeno-associated viruses to deliver CRISPR gene editing components to four dogs and examined dystrophin protein expression 6 weeks after intramuscular delivery (n = 2) or 8 weeks after systemic delivery (n = 2). After systemic delivery in skeletal muscle, dystrophin was restored to levels ranging from 3 to 90% of normal, depending on muscle type. In cardiac muscle, dystrophin levels in the dog receiving the highest dose reached 92% of normal. The treated dogs also showed improved muscle histology. These large-animal data support the concept that, with further development, gene editing approaches may prove clinically useful for the treatment of DMD.
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Affiliation(s)
- Leonela Amoasii
- Department of Molecular Biology, Hamon Center for Regenerative Science and Medicine, Sen. Paul D. Wellstone Muscular Dystrophy Cooperative Research Center, University of Texas Southwestern Medical Center, 5323 Harry Hines Boulevard, Dallas, TX 75390, USA
- Exonics Therapeutics, 75 Kneeland Street, Boston, MA 02111, USA
| | - John C W Hildyard
- Department of Clinical Science and Services, Comparative Neuromuscular Diseases Laboratory, Royal Veterinary College, London NW1 0TU, UK
| | - Hui Li
- Department of Molecular Biology, Hamon Center for Regenerative Science and Medicine, Sen. Paul D. Wellstone Muscular Dystrophy Cooperative Research Center, University of Texas Southwestern Medical Center, 5323 Harry Hines Boulevard, Dallas, TX 75390, USA
| | - Efrain Sanchez-Ortiz
- Department of Molecular Biology, Hamon Center for Regenerative Science and Medicine, Sen. Paul D. Wellstone Muscular Dystrophy Cooperative Research Center, University of Texas Southwestern Medical Center, 5323 Harry Hines Boulevard, Dallas, TX 75390, USA
| | - Alex Mireault
- Department of Molecular Biology, Hamon Center for Regenerative Science and Medicine, Sen. Paul D. Wellstone Muscular Dystrophy Cooperative Research Center, University of Texas Southwestern Medical Center, 5323 Harry Hines Boulevard, Dallas, TX 75390, USA
| | - Daniel Caballero
- Department of Molecular Biology, Hamon Center for Regenerative Science and Medicine, Sen. Paul D. Wellstone Muscular Dystrophy Cooperative Research Center, University of Texas Southwestern Medical Center, 5323 Harry Hines Boulevard, Dallas, TX 75390, USA
| | - Rachel Harron
- Department of Clinical Science and Services, Comparative Neuromuscular Diseases Laboratory, Royal Veterinary College, London NW1 0TU, UK
| | | | - Claire Massey
- Department of Clinical Science and Services, Comparative Neuromuscular Diseases Laboratory, Royal Veterinary College, London NW1 0TU, UK
| | - John M Shelton
- Department of Internal Medicine, University of Texas Southwestern Medical Center, 5323 Harry Hines Boulevard, Dallas, TX 75390, USA
| | - Rhonda Bassel-Duby
- Department of Molecular Biology, Hamon Center for Regenerative Science and Medicine, Sen. Paul D. Wellstone Muscular Dystrophy Cooperative Research Center, University of Texas Southwestern Medical Center, 5323 Harry Hines Boulevard, Dallas, TX 75390, USA
| | - Richard J Piercy
- Department of Clinical Science and Services, Comparative Neuromuscular Diseases Laboratory, Royal Veterinary College, London NW1 0TU, UK
| | - Eric N Olson
- Department of Molecular Biology, Hamon Center for Regenerative Science and Medicine, Sen. Paul D. Wellstone Muscular Dystrophy Cooperative Research Center, University of Texas Southwestern Medical Center, 5323 Harry Hines Boulevard, Dallas, TX 75390, USA.
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Amoasii L, Long C, Li H, Mireault AA, Shelton JM, Sanchez-Ortiz E, McAnally JR, Bhattacharyya S, Schmidt F, Grimm D, Hauschka SD, Bassel-Duby R, Olson EN. Single-cut genome editing restores dystrophin expression in a new mouse model of muscular dystrophy. Sci Transl Med 2017; 9:eaan8081. [PMID: 29187645 PMCID: PMC5749406 DOI: 10.1126/scitranslmed.aan8081] [Citation(s) in RCA: 171] [Impact Index Per Article: 24.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/22/2017] [Accepted: 10/18/2017] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
Duchenne muscular dystrophy (DMD) is a severe, progressive muscle disease caused by mutations in the dystrophin gene. The majority of DMD mutations are deletions that prematurely terminate the dystrophin protein. Deletions of exon 50 of the dystrophin gene are among the most common single exon deletions causing DMD. Such mutations can be corrected by skipping exon 51, thereby restoring the dystrophin reading frame. Using clustered regularly interspaced short palindromic repeats/CRISPR-associated 9 (CRISPR/Cas9), we generated a DMD mouse model by deleting exon 50. These ΔEx50 mice displayed severe muscle dysfunction, which was corrected by systemic delivery of adeno-associated virus encoding CRISPR/Cas9 genome editing components. We optimized the method for dystrophin reading frame correction using a single guide RNA that created reframing mutations and allowed skipping of exon 51. In conjunction with muscle-specific expression of Cas9, this approach restored up to 90% of dystrophin protein expression throughout skeletal muscles and the heart of ΔEx50 mice. This method of permanently bypassing DMD mutations using a single cut in genomic DNA represents a step toward clinical correction of DMD mutations and potentially those of other neuromuscular disorders.
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Affiliation(s)
- Leonela Amoasii
- Department of Molecular Biology, Hamon Center for Regenerative Science and Medicine, Senator Paul D. Wellstone Muscular Dystrophy Cooperative Research Center, University of Texas Southern Medical Center, 5323 Harry Hines Boulevard, Dallas, TX 75390, USA
| | - Chengzu Long
- Department of Molecular Biology, Hamon Center for Regenerative Science and Medicine, Senator Paul D. Wellstone Muscular Dystrophy Cooperative Research Center, University of Texas Southern Medical Center, 5323 Harry Hines Boulevard, Dallas, TX 75390, USA
| | - Hui Li
- Department of Molecular Biology, Hamon Center for Regenerative Science and Medicine, Senator Paul D. Wellstone Muscular Dystrophy Cooperative Research Center, University of Texas Southern Medical Center, 5323 Harry Hines Boulevard, Dallas, TX 75390, USA
| | - Alex A Mireault
- Department of Molecular Biology, Hamon Center for Regenerative Science and Medicine, Senator Paul D. Wellstone Muscular Dystrophy Cooperative Research Center, University of Texas Southern Medical Center, 5323 Harry Hines Boulevard, Dallas, TX 75390, USA
| | - John M Shelton
- Department of Internal Medicine, University of Texas Southwestern Medical Center, Dallas, TX 75390, USA
| | - Efrain Sanchez-Ortiz
- Department of Molecular Biology, Hamon Center for Regenerative Science and Medicine, Senator Paul D. Wellstone Muscular Dystrophy Cooperative Research Center, University of Texas Southern Medical Center, 5323 Harry Hines Boulevard, Dallas, TX 75390, USA
| | - John R McAnally
- Department of Molecular Biology, Hamon Center for Regenerative Science and Medicine, Senator Paul D. Wellstone Muscular Dystrophy Cooperative Research Center, University of Texas Southern Medical Center, 5323 Harry Hines Boulevard, Dallas, TX 75390, USA
| | - Samadrita Bhattacharyya
- Department of Molecular Biology, Hamon Center for Regenerative Science and Medicine, Senator Paul D. Wellstone Muscular Dystrophy Cooperative Research Center, University of Texas Southern Medical Center, 5323 Harry Hines Boulevard, Dallas, TX 75390, USA
| | - Florian Schmidt
- Heidelberg University Hospital, Center for Infectious Diseases, Virology, Cluster of Excellence Cell Networks, DZIF partner, BioQuant Center, Heidelberg D-69120, Germany
| | - Dirk Grimm
- Heidelberg University Hospital, Center for Infectious Diseases, Virology, Cluster of Excellence Cell Networks, DZIF partner, BioQuant Center, Heidelberg D-69120, Germany
| | - Stephen D Hauschka
- Department of Biochemistry, University of Washington, Seattle, WA 98195, USA
| | - Rhonda Bassel-Duby
- Department of Molecular Biology, Hamon Center for Regenerative Science and Medicine, Senator Paul D. Wellstone Muscular Dystrophy Cooperative Research Center, University of Texas Southern Medical Center, 5323 Harry Hines Boulevard, Dallas, TX 75390, USA
| | - Eric N Olson
- Department of Molecular Biology, Hamon Center for Regenerative Science and Medicine, Senator Paul D. Wellstone Muscular Dystrophy Cooperative Research Center, University of Texas Southern Medical Center, 5323 Harry Hines Boulevard, Dallas, TX 75390, USA.
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