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Morrell EL, Navarro MA, Garcia JP, Beingesser J, Uzal FA. Intestinal pathology in goats challenged with Clostridium perfringens type D strain CN1020 wild-type and its genetically modified derivatives. Vet Pathol 2024:3009858241273122. [PMID: 39291644 DOI: 10.1177/03009858241273122] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 09/19/2024]
Abstract
Clostridium perfringens type D is the causative agent of enterotoxemia in sheep, goats, and cattle. Although in sheep and cattle, the disease is mainly characterized by neurological clinical signs and lesions, goats with type D enterotoxemia frequently have alterations of the alimentary system. Epsilon toxin (ETX) is the main virulence factor of C. perfringens type D, although the role of ETX in intestinal lesions in goats with type D enterotoxemia has not been fully characterized. We evaluated the contribution of ETX to C. perfringens type D enteric pathogenicity using an intraduodenal challenge model in young goats, with the virulent C. perfringens type D wild-type strain CN1020; its isogenic etx null mutant; an etx-complemented strain; and sterile, non-toxic culture medium. The intestinal tract of each animal was evaluated grossly, microscopically, and immunohistochemically for activated caspase-3. Both ETX-producing strains induced extensive enterocolitis characterized by severe mucosal necrosis, apoptosis, and diffuse suppurative infiltrates. No significant gross or microscopic lesions were observed in goats inoculated with the non-ETX-containing inocula. These results confirm that ETX is essential for the production of intestinal lesions in goats with type D disease. Also, our results suggest that the intestinal pathology of type D enterotoxemia in goats is, at least in part, associated with apoptosis.
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Yue N, Huang J, Dong M, Li J, Gao S, Wang J, Wang Y, Li D, Luo X, Liu T, Han S, Dong L, Chen M, Wang J, Xu N, Kang L, Xin W. Proteome and Phosphoproteome Profiling Reveal the Toxic Mechanism of Clostridium perfringens Epsilon Toxin in MDCK Cells. Toxins (Basel) 2024; 16:394. [PMID: 39330852 PMCID: PMC11435651 DOI: 10.3390/toxins16090394] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/13/2024] [Revised: 09/08/2024] [Accepted: 09/11/2024] [Indexed: 09/28/2024] Open
Abstract
Epsilon toxin (ETX), a potential agent of biological and toxic warfare, causes the death of many ruminants and threatens human health. It is crucial to understand the toxic mechanism of such a highly lethal and rapid course toxin. In this study, we detected the effects of ETX on the proteome and phosphoproteome of MDCK cells after 10 min and 30 min. A total of 44 differentially expressed proteins (DEPs) and 588 differentially phosphorylated proteins (DPPs) were screened in the 10 min group, while 73 DEPs and 489 DPPs were screened in the 30 min group. ETX-induced proteins and phosphorylated proteins were mainly located in the nucleus, cytoplasm, and mitochondria, and their enrichment pathways were related to transcription and translation, virus infection, and intercellular junction. Meanwhile, the protein-protein interaction network screened out several hub proteins, including SRSF1/2/6/7/11, SF3B1/2, NOP14/56, ANLN, GTPBP4, THOC2, and RRP1B. Almost all of these proteins were present in the spliceosome pathway, indicating that the spliceosome pathway is involved in ETX-induced cell death. Next, we used RNAi lentiviruses and inhibitors of several key proteins to verify whether these proteins play a critical role. The results confirmed that SRSF1, SF3B2, and THOC2 were the key proteins involved in the cytotoxic effect of ETX. In addition, we found that the common upstream kinase of these key proteins was SRPK1, and a reduction in the level of SRPK1 could also reduce ETX-induced cell death. This result was consistent with the phosphorylated proteomics analysis. In summary, our study demonstrated that ETX induces phosphorylation of SRSF1, SF3B2, THOC2, and SRPK1 proteins on the spliceosome pathway, which inhibits normal splicing of mRNA and leads to cell death.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nan Yue
- State Key Laboratory of Pathogen and Biosecurity, Institute of Microbiology and Epidemiology, AMMS, Beijing 100071, China
| | - Jing Huang
- National Key Laboratory of Intelligent Tracking and Forecasting for Infectious Diseases, National Institute of Environmental Health, Chinese Center for Disease Control and Prevention, Beijing 100020, China
| | - Mingxin Dong
- Changchun Veterinary Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Science, Changchun 130122, China
| | - Jiaxin Li
- State Key Laboratory of Pathogen and Biosecurity, Institute of Microbiology and Epidemiology, AMMS, Beijing 100071, China
| | - Shan Gao
- State Key Laboratory of Pathogen and Biosecurity, Institute of Microbiology and Epidemiology, AMMS, Beijing 100071, China
| | - Jing Wang
- State Key Laboratory of Pathogen and Biosecurity, Institute of Microbiology and Epidemiology, AMMS, Beijing 100071, China
| | | | - Dongxue Li
- State Key Laboratory of Pathogen and Biosecurity, Institute of Microbiology and Epidemiology, AMMS, Beijing 100071, China
| | - Xi Luo
- State Key Laboratory of Pathogen and Biosecurity, Institute of Microbiology and Epidemiology, AMMS, Beijing 100071, China
| | - Tingting Liu
- State Key Laboratory of Pathogen and Biosecurity, Institute of Microbiology and Epidemiology, AMMS, Beijing 100071, China
| | - Songyang Han
- State Key Laboratory of Pathogen and Biosecurity, Institute of Microbiology and Epidemiology, AMMS, Beijing 100071, China
| | - Lina Dong
- State Key Laboratory of Pathogen and Biosecurity, Institute of Microbiology and Epidemiology, AMMS, Beijing 100071, China
| | - Ming Chen
- State Key Laboratory of Pathogen and Biosecurity, Institute of Microbiology and Epidemiology, AMMS, Beijing 100071, China
| | - Jinglin Wang
- State Key Laboratory of Pathogen and Biosecurity, Institute of Microbiology and Epidemiology, AMMS, Beijing 100071, China
| | - Na Xu
- Academic Affairs Office, Jilin Medical University, Jilin 132013, China
| | - Lin Kang
- State Key Laboratory of Pathogen and Biosecurity, Institute of Microbiology and Epidemiology, AMMS, Beijing 100071, China
| | - Wenwen Xin
- State Key Laboratory of Pathogen and Biosecurity, Institute of Microbiology and Epidemiology, AMMS, Beijing 100071, China
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Giannitti F, García JP, Adams V, Armendano JI, Beingesser J, Rood JI, Uzal FA. Experimental acute Clostridium perfringens type D enterotoxemia in sheep is not characterized by specific renal lesions. Vet Pathol 2023:3009858231171669. [PMID: 37177792 DOI: 10.1177/03009858231171669] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/15/2023]
Abstract
Type D enterotoxemia, caused by Clostridium perfringens epsilon toxin (ETX), is one of the most economically important clostridial diseases of sheep. Acute type D enterotoxemia is characterized by well-documented lesions in the nervous, cardiocirculatory, and pulmonary systems. However, discrepancies and confusion exist as to whether renal lesions are part of the spectrum of lesions of this condition, which is controversial considering that for many decades it has been colloquially referred to as "pulpy kidney disease." Here, the authors assess renal changes in an experimental model of acute type D enterotoxemia in sheep and evaluate the possible role of ETX in their genesis. Four groups of 6 sheep each were intraduodenally inoculated with either a wild-type virulent C. perfringens type D strain, an etx knockout mutant unable to produce ETX, the etx mutant strain complemented with the wild-type etx gene that regains the ETX toxin production, or sterile culture medium (control group). All sheep were autopsied less than 24 hours after inoculation; none of them developed gross lesions in the kidneys. Ten predefined histologic renal changes were scored in each sheep. The proportion of sheep with microscopic changes and their severity scores did not differ significantly between groups. Mild intratubular medullary hemorrhage was observed in only 2 of the 12 sheep inoculated with the wild-type or etx-complemented bacterial strains, but not in the 12 sheep of the other 2 groups. The authors conclude that no specific gross or histologic renal lesions are observed in sheep with experimental acute type D enterotoxemia.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Jorge P García
- Universidad Nacional del Centro de la Provincia de Buenos Aires, Tandil, Buenos Aires, Argentina
| | - Vicki Adams
- Monash University, Parkville, Victoria, Australia
| | - Joaquín I Armendano
- Universidad Nacional del Centro de la Provincia de Buenos Aires, Tandil, Buenos Aires, Argentina
| | - Juliann Beingesser
- California Animal Health and Food Safety Laboratoy, University of California at Davis, San Bernardino, CA
| | | | - Francisco A Uzal
- California Animal Health and Food Safety Laboratoy, University of California at Davis, San Bernardino, CA
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MADA T, GOTO Y, KUMAGAI M, SAKAI H, KANAMORI H, TAKAMATSU D. A calf with hind limb paralysis and dysstasia and a genome sequence analysis of an isolated Clostridium perfringens toxinotype E strain. J Vet Med Sci 2023; 85:279-289. [PMID: 36653149 PMCID: PMC10076203 DOI: 10.1292/jvms.22-0432] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/12/2022] [Accepted: 12/27/2022] [Indexed: 01/19/2023] Open
Abstract
Clostridium perfringens toxinotype E infections are rare in calves, and the development of intestinal lesions were commonly observed. In 2012, a 6-day-old calf in Japan exhibited swelling with emphysema on the right gluteal region, sudden paralysis of the hind limb and dysstasia. A pathological examination revealed myositis of the gluteal muscle and neuritis of the ischiatic nerve. C. perfringens type E strain CP118 was isolated from the affected muscle. However, the intestinal symptoms and lesions that commonly develop in type E infections in calves were not detected in the present case. Genome analyses revealed that CP118 possessed 16 virulence-related genes, including enterotoxin, and was closely related to other type E and F strains. Particularly, CP118 was more closely related to type E strains from humans, including a food poisoning case, than calf isolates, suggesting its potential to cause food poisoning in humans and, thus, its importance as a potential risk to public health. Since CP118 did not possess the reported toxin genes associated with neuropathy, pyogenic inflammation caused by CP118 and/or other bacteria may have damaged the ischiatic nerve, resulting in neuropathy. Alternatively, unidentified CP118 toxins may have caused the neuropathy. This is the first study to report C. perfringens type E infection with peripheral neuropathy. The distribution of all the reported virulence-related genes in the C. perfringens population as well as the details of this rare case will provide further insights into C. perfringens type E infections.
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Affiliation(s)
- Takashi MADA
- Division of Infectious Animal Disease Research, National Institute of Animal Health, National Agriculture and Food Research Organization, Ibaraki, Japan
| | - Yo GOTO
- Miyagi Prefecture Sendai Livestock Hygiene Service Center, Miyagi, Japan
| | - Masahiko KUMAGAI
- Research Center for Advanced Analysis, National Agriculture and Food Research Organization, Ibaraki, Japan
| | - Hiroaki SAKAI
- Research Center for Advanced Analysis, National Agriculture and Food Research Organization, Ibaraki, Japan
| | - Hiroyuki KANAMORI
- Genome Breeding Support Office, Institute of Crop Science, National Agriculture and Food Research Organization, Ibaraki, Japan
| | - Daisuke TAKAMATSU
- Division of Infectious Animal Disease Research, National Institute of Animal Health, National Agriculture and Food Research Organization, Ibaraki, Japan
- The United Graduate School of Veterinary Sciences, Gifu University, Gifu, Japan
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Pathology and Pathogenesis of Brain Lesions Produced by Clostridium perfringens Type D Epsilon Toxin. Int J Mol Sci 2022; 23:ijms23169050. [PMID: 36012315 PMCID: PMC9409160 DOI: 10.3390/ijms23169050] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/13/2022] [Revised: 08/08/2022] [Accepted: 08/09/2022] [Indexed: 11/23/2022] Open
Abstract
Clostridium perfringens type D epsilon toxin (ETX) produces severe, and frequently fatal, neurologic disease in ruminant livestock. The disorder is of worldwide distribution and, although vaccination has reduced its prevalence, ETX still causes substantial economic loss in livestock enterprises. The toxin is produced in the intestine as a relatively inactive prototoxin, which is subsequently fully enzymatically activated to ETX. When changed conditions in the intestinal milieu, particularly starch overload, favor rapid proliferation of this clostridial bacterium, large amounts of ETX can be elaborated. When sufficient toxin is absorbed from the intestine into the systemic circulation and reaches the brain, two neurologic syndromes can develop from this enterotoxemia. If the brain is exposed to large amounts of ETX, the lesions are fundamentally vasculocentric. The neurotoxin binds to microvascular endothelial receptors and other brain cells, the resulting damage causing increased vascular permeability and extravasation of plasma protein and abundant fluid into the brain parenchyma. While plasma protein, particularly albumin, pools largely perivascularly, the vasogenic edema becomes widely distributed in the brain, leading to a marked rise in intracranial pressure, coma, sometimes cerebellar herniation, and, eventually, often death. When smaller quantities of ETX are absorbed into the bloodstream, or livestock are partially immune, a more protracted clinical course ensues. The resulting brain injury is characterized by bilaterally symmetrical necrotic foci in certain selectively vulnerable neuroanatomic sites, termed focal symmetrical encephalomalacia. ETX has also been internationally listed as a potential bioterrorism agent. Although there are no confirmed human cases of ETX intoxication, the relatively wide species susceptibility to this toxin and its high toxicity mean it is likely that human populations would also be vulnerable to its neurotoxic actions. While the pathogenesis of ETX toxicity in the brain is incompletely understood, the putative mechanisms involved in neural lesion development are discussed.
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Reevaluation of whether a Functional Agr-like Quorum-Sensing System Is Necessary for Production of Wild-Type Levels of Epsilon-Toxin by Clostridium perfringens Type D Strains. mBio 2022; 13:e0049622. [PMID: 35319233 PMCID: PMC9040827 DOI: 10.1128/mbio.00496-22] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/05/2022] Open
Abstract
Clostridium perfringens type B and D strains produce epsilon-toxin (ETX). Our 2011 mBio study (mBio 2:e00275-11, 2011, https://doi.org/10.1128/mBio.00275-11) reported that the Agr quorum-sensing (QS) system regulates ETX production by type D strain CN3718. However, subsequent studies have brought that conclusion into question. For example, we reported in 2012 (Infect Immun 80:3008–3017, 2012, https://doi.org/10.1128/IAI.00438-12) that the Agr-like QS system is not required for wild-type ETX production levels by two type B strains. Consequently, we reexamined whether the Agr-like QS system regulates ETX production in type D strains by using Targetron insertional mutagenesis to construct new agrB null mutants of two type D strains, CN3718 and CN2068. Western blotting showed that both agrB mutants still produce wild-type ETX levels. However, the newly constructed agrB mutants of both type D strains produced reduced amounts of alpha-toxin, and this effect was reversible by complementation, which confirms loss of functional AgrB production by these mutants since alpha-toxin production is known to be regulated by AgrB. Coupled with the previously published results for type B strains, these new findings indicate the Agr-like QS system is not usually necessary for C. perfringens to produce wild-type ETX levels.
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Compound heterozygous PLA2G6 loss-of-function variants in Swaledale sheep with neuroaxonal dystrophy. Mol Genet Genomics 2020; 296:235-242. [PMID: 33159255 PMCID: PMC7840627 DOI: 10.1007/s00438-020-01742-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/17/2020] [Accepted: 10/23/2020] [Indexed: 10/28/2022]
Abstract
Sporadic occurrences of neurodegenerative disorders including neuroaxonal dystrophy (NAD) have been previously reported in sheep. However, so far no causative genetic variant has been found for ovine NAD. The aim of this study was to characterize the phenotype and the genetic aetiology of an early-onset neurodegenerative disorder observed in several lambs of purebred Swaledale sheep, a native English breed. Affected lambs showed progressive ataxia and stiff gait and subsequent histopathological analysis revealed the widespread presence of axonal spheroid indicating neuronal degeneration. Thus, the observed clinical phenotype could be explained by a novel form of NAD. After SNP genotyping and subsequent linkage mapping within a paternal half-sib pedigree with a total of five NAD-affected lambs, we identified two loss-of-function variants by whole-genome sequencing in the ovine PLA2G6 gene situated in a NAD-linked genome region on chromosome 3. All cases were carriers of a compound heterozygous splice site variant in intron 2 and a nonsense variant in exon 8. Herein we present evidence for the occurrence of a familial novel form of recessively inherited NAD in sheep due to allelic heterogeneity at PLA2G6. This study reports two pathogenic variants in PLA2G6 causing a novel form of NAD in Swaledale sheep which enables selection against this fatal disorder.
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Giannitti F, García JP, Rood JI, Adams V, Armendano JI, Beingesser J, Uzal FA. Cardiopulmonary Lesions in Sheep Produced by Experimental Acute Clostridium Perfringens Type D Enterotoxemia. Vet Pathol 2020; 58:103-113. [PMID: 33054683 DOI: 10.1177/0300985820965554] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
Enterotoxemia caused by Clostridium perfringens type D is one of the most prevalent clostridial diseases of sheep. The lesions of the acute form of this disease, particularly the cerebral lesions, are well characterized; however, detailed descriptions of the cardiac and pulmonary lesions are lacking. Here we describe cardiopulmonary lesions in experimental acute type D enterotoxemia in sheep and determine the role of epsilon toxin (ETX) in the development of these lesions. Four groups of 6 sheep were intraduodenally inoculated with either a wild-type C. perfringens type D strain; its etx knockout mutant, which is unable to produce ETX; the etx mutant complemented with the wild-type etx gene, which regains the ETX toxigenic ability; or sterile culture medium as a control. All sheep were subjected to postmortem examination within 24 hours of inoculation. Lesion scores were compared between groups for pulmonary edema; hydrothorax; ascites; hydropericardium; endocardial, myocardial and epicardial hemorrhages; microscopic lesions of acute myocardial degeneration and necrosis; and myocardial, endocardial, and epicardial edema, hemorrhage, and inflammation. Only sheep inoculated with the wild-type and complemented ETX-toxigenic bacterial strains developed cardiopulmonary lesions, which were present in varying degrees of severity and proportions. These lesions were not present in sheep inoculated with the etx mutant or in the negative control. We conclude that severe acute cardiopulmonary lesions in sheep with experimental enterotoxemia are associated with the capacity of the strains to produce ETX. These changes are likely contributors to the clinical signs and even death of affected animals.
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Affiliation(s)
- Federico Giannitti
- 153579Instituto Nacional de Investigación Agropecuaria (INIA), Plataforma de Investigación en Salud Animal, Estación Experimental INIA La Estanzuela, Colonia, Uruguay
| | - Jorge P García
- Universidad Nacional del Centro de la Provincia de Buenos Aires (UNCPBA), Tandil, Buenos Aires, Argentina
| | | | - Vicki Adams
- 2541Monash University, Clayton, Victoria, Australia
| | - Joaquín I Armendano
- Universidad Nacional del Centro de la Provincia de Buenos Aires (UNCPBA), Tandil, Buenos Aires, Argentina
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Finnie JW, Navarro MA, Uzal FA. Pathogenesis and diagnostic features of brain and ophthalmic damage produced by Clostridium perfringens type D epsilon toxin. J Vet Diagn Invest 2020; 32:282-286. [PMID: 31955669 DOI: 10.1177/1040638719900190] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Clostridium perfringens type D epsilon toxin (EXT) causes an important neurologic disorder of sheep, goats and, rarely, cattle. The disease can occur in peracute, acute, subacute, and chronic forms. High circulating levels of ETX produce vasculocentric brain lesions, in which microvascular endothelial injury results in diagnostically useful perivascular and intramural extravasations of plasma protein, especially in sheep, and less frequently in goats. With lower toxin doses, a more protracted clinical course tends to occur, particularly in sheep, leading to focal, bilaterally symmetrical, necrotic foci in certain brain regions. Although these morphologic features usually permit the diagnostic pathologist to make a definitive etiologic diagnosis, there are many aspects of the pathogenesis of these cerebral lesions that are not completely understood. ETX has also been shown to produce microvascular damage in the retina of rats, resulting in severe, diffuse vasogenic edema, similar to that found in brains exposed to this neurotoxin. The pathoclisis and vascular theories offer alternative explanations of the differential susceptibility of different brain regions to the same neurotoxic insult.
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Affiliation(s)
- John W Finnie
- Discipline of Anatomy and Pathology, Adelaide Medical School, University of Adelaide, Adelaide, South Australia, Australia (Finnie).,California Animal Health and Food Safety Laboratory System-San Bernardino Branch, School of Veterinary Medicine, University of California-Davis, San Bernardino, CA (Navarro, Uzal)
| | - Mauricio A Navarro
- Discipline of Anatomy and Pathology, Adelaide Medical School, University of Adelaide, Adelaide, South Australia, Australia (Finnie).,California Animal Health and Food Safety Laboratory System-San Bernardino Branch, School of Veterinary Medicine, University of California-Davis, San Bernardino, CA (Navarro, Uzal)
| | - Francisco A Uzal
- Discipline of Anatomy and Pathology, Adelaide Medical School, University of Adelaide, Adelaide, South Australia, Australia (Finnie).,California Animal Health and Food Safety Laboratory System-San Bernardino Branch, School of Veterinary Medicine, University of California-Davis, San Bernardino, CA (Navarro, Uzal)
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Linden JR, Flores C, Schmidt EF, Uzal FA, Michel AO, Valenzuela M, Dobrow S, Vartanian T. Clostridium perfringens epsilon toxin induces blood brain barrier permeability via caveolae-dependent transcytosis and requires expression of MAL. PLoS Pathog 2019; 15:e1008014. [PMID: 31703116 PMCID: PMC6867657 DOI: 10.1371/journal.ppat.1008014] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/04/2019] [Revised: 11/20/2019] [Accepted: 08/01/2019] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Clostridium perfringens epsilon toxin (ETX) is responsible for causing the economically devastating disease, enterotoxaemia, in livestock. It is well accepted that ETX causes blood brain barrier (BBB) permeability, however the mechanisms involved in this process are not well understood. Using in vivo and in vitro methods, we determined that ETX causes BBB permeability in mice by increasing caveolae-dependent transcytosis in brain endothelial cells. When mice are intravenously injected with ETX, robust ETX binding is observed in the microvasculature of the central nervous system (CNS) with limited to no binding observed in the vasculature of peripheral organs, indicating that ETX specifically targets CNS endothelial cells. ETX binding to CNS microvasculature is dependent on MAL expression, as ETX binding to CNS microvasculature of MAL-deficient mice was not detected. ETX treatment also induces extravasation of molecular tracers including 376Da fluorescein salt, 60kDA serum albumin, 70kDa dextran, and 155kDA IgG. Importantly, ETX-induced BBB permeability requires expression of both MAL and caveolin-1, as mice deficient in MAL or caveolin-1 did not exhibit ETX-induced BBB permeability. Examination of primary murine brain endothelial cells revealed an increase in caveolae in ETX-treated cells, resulting in dynamin and lipid raft-dependent vacuolation without cell death. ETX-treatment also results in a rapid loss of EEA1 positive early endosomes and accumulation of large, RAB7-positive late endosomes and multivesicular bodies. Based on these results, we hypothesize that ETX binds to MAL on the apical surface of brain endothelial cells, causing recruitment of caveolin-1, triggering caveolae formation and internalization. Internalized caveolae fuse with early endosomes which traffic to late endosomes and multivesicular bodies. We believe that these multivesicular bodies fuse basally, releasing their contents into the brain parenchyma. Clostridium perfringens epsilon toxin (ETX) is an extremely lethal bacterial toxin known to cause a devastating disease in livestock animals and may be a possible cause of multiple sclerosis in humans. ETX is well known to cause disruption of the blood-brain barrier (BBB), a critical structure necessary for proper brain function. Deterioration of this barrier allows entry of toxic blood-borne material to enter the brain. Although ETX-induced BBB dysfunction is well accepted, how this happens is unknown. Here, we demonstrate that ETX causes BBB permeability by inducing formation of cell-surface invaginations called caveolae in endothelial cells, the cells that line blood vessels. Importantly, only endothelial cells from the brain and other central nervous system organs appear to be a target of ETX, as the toxin only binds to blood vessels in these organs and not blood vessels from other organs. These ETX-induced caveolae fuse with other caveolae and specialized intracellular vesicles called endosomes. We predict that these endosomes engulf blood-borne material during their internalization, allowing material to travel from the blood, through the cell, and into brain tissue. We also show that expression of the protein MAL and caveolin-1 is necessary for ETX-induced BBB permeability.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jennifer R. Linden
- The Brain and Mind Research Institute and the Department of Neurology, Weill Cornell Medical College, New York, New York, United States of America
| | - Claudia Flores
- The Brain and Mind Research Institute and the Department of Neurology, Weill Cornell Medical College, New York, New York, United States of America
| | - Eric F. Schmidt
- Laboratory of Molecular Biology, The Rockefeller University, New York, New York, United States of America
| | - Francisco A. Uzal
- California Animal Health & Food Safety Laboratory System, San Bernardino Branch, University of California, Davis, San Bernardino, California, United States of America
| | - Adam O. Michel
- Laboratory of Comparative Pathology, Center of Comparative Medicine and Pathology, Memorial Sloan Kettering Cancer Center, The Rockefeller University, Weill Cornell Medicine, New York, New York, United States of America
| | - Marissa Valenzuela
- The Brain and Mind Research Institute and the Department of Neurology, Weill Cornell Medical College, New York, New York, United States of America
| | - Sebastian Dobrow
- The Brain and Mind Research Institute and the Department of Neurology, Weill Cornell Medical College, New York, New York, United States of America
| | - Timothy Vartanian
- The Brain and Mind Research Institute and the Department of Neurology, Weill Cornell Medical College, New York, New York, United States of America
- * E-mail:
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12
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Ortega J, Verdes JM, Morrell EL, Finnie JW, Manavis J, Uzal FA. Intramural Vascular Edema in the Brain of Goats With Clostridium perfringens Type D Enterotoxemia. Vet Pathol 2019; 56:452-459. [DOI: 10.1177/0300985818817071] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/15/2022]
Abstract
Enterotoxemia caused by Clostridium perfringens type D is an important disease of sheep and goats with a worldwide distribution. Cerebral microangiopathy is considered pathognomonic for ovine enterotoxemia and is seen in most cases of the disorder in sheep. However, these lesions are poorly described in goats. In this article, we describe the vasculocentric brain lesions in 44 cases of caprine spontaneous C. perfringens type D enterotoxemia. Only 1 goat had gross changes in the brain, which consisted of mild cerebellar coning. However, 8 of 44 (18%) cases showed microscopic brain lesions, characterized by intramural vascular proteinaceous edema, a novel and diagnostically significant finding. The precise location of the edema was better observed with periodic acid–Schiff, Gomori’s, and albumin stains. Glial fibrillary acidic protein and aquaporin 4 immunostaining revealed strong immunolabeling of astrocyte foot processes surrounding microvessels. The areas of the brain most frequently affected were the cerebral cortex, corpus striatum (basal ganglia), and cerebellar peduncles, and both arterioles and venules were involved. Most of the goats of this study showed lesions in the intestine (enteritis, colitis, and typhlitis), although pulmonary congestion and edema, hydrothorax, hydropericardium, and ascites were also described. Although the intramural edema described, for the first time, in these caprine cases is useful for the diagnosis of enterotoxemia when observed, its absence cannot exclude the disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Joaquín Ortega
- Patología y Sanidad Animal, Departamento PASAPTA, Facultad de Veterinaria, Universidad CEU-Cardenal Herrera, CEU Universities, Moncada (Valencia), Spain
| | - José Manuel Verdes
- Área Patología, Departamento de Patología, Facultad de Veterinaria, Universidad de la República, Montevideo, Uruguay
| | - Eleonora L. Morrell
- California Animal Health and Food Safety Laboratory System–San Bernardino Branch, School of Veterinary Medicine, University of California, San Bernardino, CA, USA
| | - John W. Finnie
- Discipline of Anatomy and Pathology, Adelaide Medical School, University of Adelaide, Adelaide, Australia
| | - Jim Manavis
- Discipline of Anatomy and Pathology, Adelaide Medical School, University of Adelaide, Adelaide, Australia
| | - Francisco A. Uzal
- California Animal Health and Food Safety Laboratory System–San Bernardino Branch, School of Veterinary Medicine, University of California, San Bernardino, CA, USA
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Mechanisms of Action and Cell Death Associated with Clostridium perfringens Toxins. Toxins (Basel) 2018; 10:toxins10050212. [PMID: 29786671 PMCID: PMC5983268 DOI: 10.3390/toxins10050212] [Citation(s) in RCA: 120] [Impact Index Per Article: 20.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/27/2018] [Revised: 05/18/2018] [Accepted: 05/19/2018] [Indexed: 12/26/2022] Open
Abstract
Clostridium perfringens uses its large arsenal of protein toxins to produce histotoxic, neurologic and intestinal infections in humans and animals. The major toxins involved in diseases are alpha (CPA), beta (CPB), epsilon (ETX), iota (ITX), enterotoxin (CPE), and necrotic B-like (NetB) toxins. CPA is the main virulence factor involved in gas gangrene in humans, whereas its role in animal diseases is limited and controversial. CPB is responsible for necrotizing enteritis and enterotoxemia, mostly in neonatal individuals of many animal species, including humans. ETX is the main toxin involved in enterotoxemia of sheep and goats. ITX has been implicated in cases of enteritis in rabbits and other animal species; however, its specific role in causing disease has not been proved. CPE is responsible for human food-poisoning and non-foodborne C. perfringens-mediated diarrhea. NetB is the cause of necrotic enteritis in chickens. In most cases, host–toxin interaction starts on the plasma membrane of target cells via specific receptors, resulting in the activation of intracellular pathways with a variety of effects, commonly including cell death. In general, the molecular mechanisms of cell death associated with C. perfringens toxins involve features of apoptosis, necrosis and/or necroptosis.
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Koyama K, Kangawa A, Fukumoto N, Watanabe KI, Horiuchi N, Ozawa T, Inokuma H, Kobayashi Y. Histopathological study of encephalomalacia in neonatal calves and application of neuronal and axonal degeneration marker. J Vet Med Sci 2018; 80:1116-1124. [PMID: 29731475 PMCID: PMC6068296 DOI: 10.1292/jvms.18-0143] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022] Open
Abstract
Five calves that had shown neurological symptoms within 9 days after birth were histopathologically diagnosed as encephalomalacia. Two calves showed bilateral laminar cerebrocortical necrosis and neuronal necrosis in the corpus striatum and hippocampus. Since the distributional pattern of the lesions was consistent with that of global ischemia in other species, the lesions were probably hypoxic/ischemic encephalopathy consistent with the history of dystocia and perinatal asphyxia. One calf also showed bilateral laminar cerebrocortical necrosis. However, the lesions were chronic ones, because the calf had survived for long time and necropsied at postnatal day 118. Additionally, the lesions did not involve the corpus striatum and hippocampus. The other two calves showed multifocal necrosis with vascular lesions characterized by fibrin thrombi, perivascular edema and perivascular hyaline droplets in the cerebral cortex, corpus striatum, thalamus, brain stem and cerebellum. Considering the age of onsets and histopathological appearance, it was possible that latter three calves were also hypoxic/ischemic encephalopathy, however, exact cause of them was not revealed. In all calves, degenerated/necrotic neurons showed positive reactions for Fluoro-Jade C and degenerated axons showed immunoreactivity for Alzheimer precursor protein A4. Therefore, these markers were applicable to examination of brain injury in neonatal calves.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kenji Koyama
- Laboratory of Veterinary Pathology, Department of Basic Veterinary Medicine, Obihiro University of Agriculture and Veterinary Medicine, Obihiro, Hokkaido 080-8555, Japan.,The United Graduate School of Veterinary Sciences, Gifu University, Gifu, Gifu 501-1193, Japan
| | - Akihisa Kangawa
- Laboratory of Veterinary Pathology, Department of Basic Veterinary Medicine, Obihiro University of Agriculture and Veterinary Medicine, Obihiro, Hokkaido 080-8555, Japan
| | - Natsuko Fukumoto
- National Livestock Breeding Center, Tokachi Station, Otofuke, Hokkaido 080-0572, Japan
| | - Ken-Ichi Watanabe
- Laboratory of Veterinary Pathology, Department of Basic Veterinary Medicine, Obihiro University of Agriculture and Veterinary Medicine, Obihiro, Hokkaido 080-8555, Japan
| | - Noriyuki Horiuchi
- Laboratory of Veterinary Pathology, Department of Basic Veterinary Medicine, Obihiro University of Agriculture and Veterinary Medicine, Obihiro, Hokkaido 080-8555, Japan
| | - Tomomi Ozawa
- National Institute of Animal Health, National Agriculture and Food Research Organization, Tsukuba, Ibaraki 305-0856, Japan
| | - Hisashi Inokuma
- Laboratory of Veterinary Internal Medicine, Department of Clinical Veterinary Medicine, Obihiro University of Agriculture and Veterinary Medicine, Obihiro, Hokkaido 080-8555, Japan
| | - Yoshiyasu Kobayashi
- Laboratory of Veterinary Pathology, Department of Basic Veterinary Medicine, Obihiro University of Agriculture and Veterinary Medicine, Obihiro, Hokkaido 080-8555, Japan
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Mander K, Finnie J. Loss of Endothelial Barrier Antigen Immunoreactivity in Rat Retinal Microvessels is Correlated with Clostridium perfringens Type D Epsilon Toxin-induced Damage to the Blood–Retinal Barrier. J Comp Pathol 2018; 158:51-55. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jcpa.2017.11.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/29/2017] [Revised: 11/17/2017] [Accepted: 11/25/2017] [Indexed: 11/15/2022]
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16
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Jago RC, Scholes S, Mair TS, Pearson GR, Pirie RS, Handel I, Milne EM, Coyle F, Mcgorum BC. Histological assessment of β-amyloid precursor protein immunolabelled rectal biopsies aids diagnosis of equine grass sickness. Equine Vet J 2017. [PMID: 28621903 DOI: 10.1111/evj.12710] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND An accurate, minimally invasive, ante-mortem diagnostic test for equine grass sickness (EGS) is currently lacking. Although histological examination of haematoxylin and eosin-stained rectal biopsies for chromatolytic neurons is insensitive as a diagnostic test for EGS, we hypothesised that its diagnostic accuracy could be improved by immunolabelling for β-amyloid precursor protein (β-APP), which has increased expression in cranial cervical ganglia (CCG) neuronal perikarya in EGS. OBJECTIVES To develop a grading scheme for assessing the distribution and intensity of β-APP immunoreactivity within individual rectal submucosal neurons and subsequently to determine the value of the distribution of different grades of neurons in EGS diagnosis. STUDY DESIGN Retrospective case-control diagnostic accuracy study. METHODS Initially, a standardised grading scheme was developed and β-APP immunoreactivity in individual neuronal perikarya and axons was compared in sections of CCG and ileum from EGS and control horses. The grading scheme was then refined before being blindly applied to submucosal neurons in rectal biopsies derived from 21 EGS and 23 control horses. RESULTS β-APP immunoreactivity was increased in neuronal perikarya and axons in sections of CCG, ileum and rectum from EGS horses compared with controls. For rectal biopsies, a mean immunoreactivity grade exceeding 1.1 was 100% specific and sensitive for EGS, and the presence of at least one neuron with diffuse labelling of the entire cytoplasm (grade 3) was 95% sensitive and 100% specific for EGS. MAIN LIMITATIONS Although the diagnostic criteria facilitated the discrimination of the EGS and control biopsies evaluated in this study, further prospective validation using a larger sample set is required. CONCLUSIONS Histological assessment of β-APP immunolabelled rectal biopsies is more sensitive than conventional histological examination in EGS diagnosis. Further validation is required before this technique can be advocated for use in clinical decision making.
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Affiliation(s)
- R C Jago
- Royal (Dick) School of Veterinary Studies and Roslin Institute, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, UK
| | - S Scholes
- SAC Consulting Veterinary Services, Penicuik, UK
| | - T S Mair
- Bell Equine Veterinary Clinic, Maidstone, UK
| | - G R Pearson
- School of Clinical Veterinary Science, University of Bristol, Bristol, UK
| | - R S Pirie
- Royal (Dick) School of Veterinary Studies and Roslin Institute, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, UK
| | - I Handel
- Royal (Dick) School of Veterinary Studies and Roslin Institute, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, UK
| | - E M Milne
- Royal (Dick) School of Veterinary Studies and Roslin Institute, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, UK
| | - F Coyle
- Royal (Dick) School of Veterinary Studies and Roslin Institute, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, UK
| | - B C Mcgorum
- Royal (Dick) School of Veterinary Studies and Roslin Institute, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, UK
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17
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Freedman JC, McClane BA, Uzal FA. New insights into Clostridium perfringens epsilon toxin activation and action on the brain during enterotoxemia. Anaerobe 2016; 41:27-31. [PMID: 27321761 DOI: 10.1016/j.anaerobe.2016.06.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/10/2016] [Revised: 06/07/2016] [Accepted: 06/15/2016] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
Epsilon toxin (ETX), produced by Clostridium perfringens types B and D, is responsible for diseases that occur mostly in ruminants. ETX is produced in the form of an inactive prototoxin that becomes proteolytically-activated by several proteases. A recent ex vivo study using caprine intestinal contents demonstrated that ETX prototoxin is processed in a step-wise fashion into a stable, active ∼27 kDa band on SDS-PAGE. When characterized further by mass spectrometry, the stable ∼27 kDa band was shown to contain three ETX species with varying C-terminal residues; each of these ETX species is cytotoxic. This study also demonstrated that, in addition to trypsin and chymotrypsin, proteases such as carboxypeptidases are involved in processing ETX prototoxin. Once absorbed, activated ETX species travel to several internal organs, including the brain, where this toxin acts on the vasculature to cross the blood-brain barrier, produces perivascular edema and affects several types of brain cells including neurons, astrocytes, and oligodendrocytes. In addition to perivascular edema, affected animals show edema within the vascular walls. This edema separates the astrocytic end-feet from affected blood vessels, causing hypoxia of nervous system tissue. Astrocytes of rats and sheep affected by ETX show overexpression of aquaporin-4, a membrane channel protein that is believed to help remove water from affected perivascular spaces in an attempt to resolve the perivascular edema. Amyloid precursor protein, an early astrocyte damage indicator, is also observed in the brains of affected sheep. These results show that ETX activation in vivo seems to be more complex than previously thought and this toxin acts on the brain, affecting vascular permeability, but also damaging neurons and other cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- John C Freedman
- Department of Microbiology and Molecular Genetics, University of Pittsburgh School of Medicine, Pittsburgh, PA, USA
| | - Bruce A McClane
- Department of Microbiology and Molecular Genetics, University of Pittsburgh School of Medicine, Pittsburgh, PA, USA
| | - Francisco A Uzal
- California Animal Health and Food Safety Laboratory, San Bernardino Branch, School of Veterinary Medicine, University of California-Davis, San Bernardino, CA, USA.
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Clostridium perfringens Epsilon Toxin Causes Selective Death of Mature Oligodendrocytes and Central Nervous System Demyelination. mBio 2015; 6:e02513. [PMID: 26081637 PMCID: PMC4471556 DOI: 10.1128/mbio.02513-14] [Citation(s) in RCA: 61] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/15/2022] Open
Abstract
Clostridium perfringens epsilon toxin (ε-toxin) is responsible for a devastating multifocal central nervous system (CNS) white matter disease in ruminant animals. The mechanism by which ε-toxin causes white matter damage is poorly understood. In this study, we sought to determine the molecular and cellular mechanisms by which ε-toxin causes pathological changes to white matter. In primary CNS cultures, ε-toxin binds to and kills oligodendrocytes but not astrocytes, microglia, or neurons. In cerebellar organotypic culture, ε-toxin induces demyelination, which occurs in a time- and dose-dependent manner, while preserving neurons, astrocytes, and microglia. ε-Toxin specificity for oligodendrocytes was confirmed using enriched glial culture. Sensitivity to ε-toxin is developmentally regulated, as only mature oligodendrocytes are susceptible to ε-toxin; oligodendrocyte progenitor cells are not. ε-Toxin sensitivity is also dependent on oligodendrocyte expression of the proteolipid myelin and lymphocyte protein (MAL), as MAL-deficient oligodendrocytes are insensitive to ε-toxin. In addition, ε-toxin binding to white matter follows the spatial and temporal pattern of MAL expression. A neutralizing antibody against ε-toxin inhibits oligodendrocyte death and demyelination. This study provides several novel insights into the action of ε-toxin in the CNS. (i) ε-Toxin causes selective oligodendrocyte death while preserving all other neural elements. (ii) ε-Toxin-mediated oligodendrocyte death is a cell autonomous effect. (iii) The effects of ε-toxin on the oligodendrocyte lineage are restricted to mature oligodendrocytes. (iv) Expression of the developmentally regulated proteolipid MAL is required for the cytotoxic effects. (v) The cytotoxic effects of ε-toxin can be abrogated by an ε-toxin neutralizing antibody. Our intestinal tract is host to trillions of microorganisms that play an essential role in health and homeostasis. Disruption of this symbiotic relationship has been implicated in influencing or causing disease in distant organ systems such as the brain. Epsilon toxin (ε-toxin)-carrying Clostridium perfringens strains are responsible for a devastating white matter disease in ruminant animals that shares similar features with human multiple sclerosis. In this report, we define the mechanism by which ε-toxin causes white matter disease. We find that ε-toxin specifically targets the myelin-forming cells of the central nervous system (CNS), oligodendrocytes, leading to cell death. The selectivity of ε-toxin for oligodendrocytes is remarkable, as other cells of the CNS are unaffected. Importantly, ε-toxin-induced oligodendrocyte death results in demyelination and is dependent on expression of myelin and lymphocyte protein (MAL). These results help complete the mechanistic pathway from bacteria to brain by explaining the specific cellular target of ε-toxin within the CNS.
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Rumah KR, Ma Y, Linden JR, Oo ML, Anrather J, Schaeren-Wiemers N, Alonso MA, Fischetti VA, McClain MS, Vartanian T. The Myelin and Lymphocyte Protein MAL Is Required for Binding and Activity of Clostridium perfringens ε-Toxin. PLoS Pathog 2015; 11:e1004896. [PMID: 25993478 PMCID: PMC4439126 DOI: 10.1371/journal.ppat.1004896] [Citation(s) in RCA: 62] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/15/2013] [Accepted: 04/19/2015] [Indexed: 12/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Clostridium perfringens ε-toxin (ETX) is a potent pore-forming toxin responsible for a central nervous system (CNS) disease in ruminant animals with characteristics of blood-brain barrier (BBB) dysfunction and white matter injury. ETX has been proposed as a potential causative agent for Multiple Sclerosis (MS), a human disease that begins with BBB breakdown and injury to myelin forming cells of the CNS. The receptor for ETX is unknown. Here we show that both binding of ETX to mammalian cells and cytotoxicity requires the tetraspan proteolipid Myelin and Lymphocyte protein (MAL). While native Chinese Hamster Ovary (CHO) cells are resistant to ETX, exogenous expression of MAL in CHO cells confers both ETX binding and susceptibility to ETX-mediated cell death. Cells expressing rat MAL are ~100 times more sensitive to ETX than cells expressing similar levels of human MAL. Insertion of the FLAG sequence into the second extracellular loop of MAL abolishes ETX binding and cytotoxicity. ETX is known to bind specifically and with high affinity to intestinal epithelium, renal tubules, brain endothelial cells and myelin. We identify specific binding of ETX to these structures and additionally show binding to retinal microvasculature and the squamous epithelial cells of the sclera in wild-type mice. In contrast, there is a complete absence of ETX binding to tissues from MAL knockout (MAL-/-) mice. Furthermore, MAL-/- mice exhibit complete resistance to ETX at doses in excess of 1000 times the symptomatic dose for wild-type mice. We conclude that MAL is required for both ETX binding and cytotoxicity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kareem Rashid Rumah
- Brain and Mind Research Institute, Weill Cornell Medical College, New York City, New York, United States of America
- Laboratory of Bacterial Pathogenesis and Immunology, The Rockefeller University, New York City, New York, United States of America
| | - Yinghua Ma
- Brain and Mind Research Institute, Weill Cornell Medical College, New York City, New York, United States of America
| | - Jennifer R. Linden
- Brain and Mind Research Institute, Weill Cornell Medical College, New York City, New York, United States of America
| | - Myat Lin Oo
- Brain and Mind Research Institute, Weill Cornell Medical College, New York City, New York, United States of America
| | - Josef Anrather
- Brain and Mind Research Institute, Weill Cornell Medical College, New York City, New York, United States of America
| | - Nicole Schaeren-Wiemers
- Neurobiology, Department of Biomedicine, University Hospital Basel, University of Basel, Basel, Switzerland
| | - Miguel A. Alonso
- Centro de Biología Molecular Severo Ochoa, CSIC-UAM, Cantoblanco, Madrid, Spain
| | - Vincent A. Fischetti
- Laboratory of Bacterial Pathogenesis and Immunology, The Rockefeller University, New York City, New York, United States of America
| | - Mark S. McClain
- Department of Medicine, Division of Infectious Diseases, Vanderbilt University School of Medicine, Nashville, Tennessee, United States of America
| | - Timothy Vartanian
- Brain and Mind Research Institute, Weill Cornell Medical College, New York City, New York, United States of America
- * E-mail:
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20
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Uzal FA, McClane BA, Cheung JK, Theoret J, Garcia JP, Moore RJ, Rood JI. Animal models to study the pathogenesis of human and animal Clostridium perfringens infections. Vet Microbiol 2015; 179:23-33. [PMID: 25770894 DOI: 10.1016/j.vetmic.2015.02.013] [Citation(s) in RCA: 49] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/13/2015] [Revised: 02/11/2015] [Accepted: 02/15/2015] [Indexed: 10/23/2022]
Abstract
The most common animal models used to study Clostridium perfringens infections in humans and animals are reviewed here. The classical C. perfringens-mediated histotoxic disease of humans is clostridial myonecrosis or gas gangrene and the use of a mouse myonecrosis model coupled with genetic studies has contributed greatly to our understanding of disease pathogenesis. Similarly, the use of a chicken model has enhanced our understanding of type A-mediated necrotic enteritis in poultry and has led to the identification of NetB as the primary toxin involved in disease. C. perfringens type A food poisoning is a highly prevalent bacterial illness in the USA and elsewhere. Rabbits and mice are the species most commonly used to study the action of enterotoxin, the causative toxin. Other animal models used to study the effect of this toxin are rats, non-human primates, sheep and cattle. In rabbits and mice, CPE produces severe necrosis of the small intestinal epithelium along with fluid accumulation. C. perfringens type D infection has been studied by inoculating epsilon toxin (ETX) intravenously into mice, rats, sheep, goats and cattle, and by intraduodenal inoculation of whole cultures of this microorganism in mice, sheep, goats and cattle. Molecular Koch's postulates have been fulfilled for enterotoxigenic C. perfringens type A in rabbits and mice, for C. perfringens type A necrotic enteritis and gas gangrene in chickens and mice, respectively, for C. perfringens type C in mice, rabbits and goats, and for C. perfringens type D in mice, sheep and goats.
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Affiliation(s)
- Francisco A Uzal
- California Animal Health and Food Safety Laboratory System, San Bernardino Branch, School of Veterinary Medicine, University of California, Davis, San Bernardino, CA 92408, USA.
| | - Bruce A McClane
- Department of Microbiology and Molecular Genetics, University of Pittsburgh School of Medicine, Pittsburgh, PA 15261, USA
| | - Jackie K Cheung
- Department of Microbiology, Monash University, Clayton, Victoria, Australia
| | - James Theoret
- Department of Microbiology and Molecular Genetics, University of Pittsburgh School of Medicine, Pittsburgh, PA 15261, USA
| | - Jorge P Garcia
- Department of Large Animal Medicine, School of Veterinary Medicine, National University of the Center of Buenos Aires Province, Tandil, Argentina
| | - Robert J Moore
- Department of Microbiology, Monash University, Clayton, Victoria, Australia; School of Applied Sciences, RMIT University, Bundoora, Victoria, Australia; Poultry Cooperative Research Centre, Armidale, New South Wales, Australia
| | - Julian I Rood
- Department of Microbiology, Monash University, Clayton, Victoria, Australia; Poultry Cooperative Research Centre, Armidale, New South Wales, Australia
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