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Kessler F, Frankenstein J, Rothkopf CA. Human navigation strategies and their errors result from dynamic interactions of spatial uncertainties. Nat Commun 2024; 15:5677. [PMID: 38971789 PMCID: PMC11227593 DOI: 10.1038/s41467-024-49722-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/07/2023] [Accepted: 06/14/2024] [Indexed: 07/08/2024] Open
Abstract
Goal-directed navigation requires continuously integrating uncertain self-motion and landmark cues into an internal sense of location and direction, concurrently planning future paths, and sequentially executing motor actions. Here, we provide a unified account of these processes with a computational model of probabilistic path planning in the framework of optimal feedback control under uncertainty. This model gives rise to diverse human navigational strategies previously believed to be distinct behaviors and predicts quantitatively both the errors and the variability of navigation across numerous experiments. This furthermore explains how sequential egocentric landmark observations form an uncertain allocentric cognitive map, how this internal map is used both in route planning and during execution of movements, and reconciles seemingly contradictory results about cue-integration behavior in navigation. Taken together, the present work provides a parsimonious explanation of how patterns of human goal-directed navigation behavior arise from the continuous and dynamic interactions of spatial uncertainties in perception, cognition, and action.
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Affiliation(s)
- Fabian Kessler
- Centre for Cognitive Science & Institute of Psychology, Technical University of Darmstadt, Darmstadt, Germany.
| | - Julia Frankenstein
- Centre for Cognitive Science & Institute of Psychology, Technical University of Darmstadt, Darmstadt, Germany
| | - Constantin A Rothkopf
- Centre for Cognitive Science & Institute of Psychology, Technical University of Darmstadt, Darmstadt, Germany
- Frankfurt Institute for Advanced Studies, Goethe University, Frankfurt, Germany
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2
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Solini HM, Rosopa EB, Rosopa PJ, Pagano CC. Quantifying accuracy on distance estimation tasks: A Monte Carlo study. Behav Res Methods 2024:10.3758/s13428-024-02353-z. [PMID: 38504080 DOI: 10.3758/s13428-024-02353-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 02/01/2024] [Indexed: 03/21/2024]
Abstract
An important aspect of perceptual learning involves understanding how well individuals can perceive distances, sizes, and time-to-contact. Oftentimes, the primary goal in these experiments is to assess participants' errors (i.e., how accurately participants perform these tasks). However, the manner in which researchers have quantified error, or task accuracy, has varied. The use of different measures of task accuracy, to include error scores, ratios, and raw estimates, indicates that the interpretation of findings depends on the measure of task accuracy utilized. In an effort to better understand this issue, we used a Monte Carlo simulation to evaluate five dependent measures of accuracy: raw distance judgments, a ratio of true to estimated distance judgments, relative error, signed error, and absolute error. We simulated data consistent with prior findings in the distance perception literature and evaluated how findings and interpretations vary as a function of the measure of accuracy used. We found there to be differences in both statistical findings (e.g., overall model fit, mean square error, Type I error rate) and the interpretations of those findings. The costs and benefits of utilizing each accuracy measure for quantifying accuracy in distance estimation studies are discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hannah M Solini
- Department of Psychology, Clemson University, 418 Brackett Hall, Clemson, SC, USA.
| | - Elenah B Rosopa
- Department of Psychology, Clemson University, 418 Brackett Hall, Clemson, SC, USA
| | - Patrick J Rosopa
- Department of Psychology, Clemson University, 418 Brackett Hall, Clemson, SC, USA
| | - Christopher C Pagano
- Department of Psychology, Clemson University, 418 Brackett Hall, Clemson, SC, USA
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3
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Martarelli CS, Chiquet S, Ertl M. Keeping track of reality: embedding visual memory in natural behaviour. Memory 2023; 31:1295-1305. [PMID: 37727126 DOI: 10.1080/09658211.2023.2260148] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/27/2023] [Accepted: 07/21/2023] [Indexed: 09/21/2023]
Abstract
Since immersive virtual reality (IVR) emerged as a research method in the 1980s, the focus has been on the similarities between IVR and actual reality. In this vein, it has been suggested that IVR methodology might fill the gap between laboratory studies and real life. IVR allows for high internal validity (i.e., a high degree of experimental control and experimental replicability), as well as high external validity by letting participants engage with the environment in an almost natural manner. Despite internal validity being crucial to experimental designs, external validity also matters in terms of the generalizability of results. In this paper, we first highlight and summarise the similarities and differences between IVR, desktop situations (both non-immersive VR and computer experiments), and reality. In the second step, we propose that IVR is a promising tool for visual memory research in terms of investigating the representation of visual information embedded in natural behaviour. We encourage researchers to carry out experiments on both two-dimensional computer screens and in immersive virtual environments to investigate visual memory and validate and replicate the findings. IVR is valuable because of its potential to improve theoretical understanding and increase the psychological relevance of the findings.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Sandra Chiquet
- Faculty of Psychology, UniDistance Suisse, Brig, Switzerland
| | - Matthias Ertl
- Department of Psychology, University of Bern, Bern, Switzerland
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4
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Oselinsky K, Spitzer AN, Yu Y, Ortega FR, Malinin LH, Curl KA, Leach H, Graham DJ. Virtual reality assessment of walking in a modifiable urban environment: a feasibility and acceptability study. Sci Rep 2023; 13:5867. [PMID: 37041163 PMCID: PMC10090125 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-023-32139-w] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/08/2022] [Accepted: 03/23/2023] [Indexed: 04/13/2023] Open
Abstract
Physical activity is known to be one of the most health-beneficial behaviors, and salutogenic design modifications to the built environment can facilitate increased physical activity. Unfortunately, it is not often clear in advance which environmental and urban design implementations will generate increases in activities such as walking, and which will have little impact or even reduce walking. The present study tested the feasibility and acceptability of a virtual reality (VR) model for pre-testing urban designs for their impact on walking. Using a wearable VR head-mounted display/computer, young adults (n = 40) walked freely through a large indoor gymnasium, simultaneously walking through a virtual model of an urban streetscape that was designed to be modifiable and allow for testing impacts on walking of various changes to the urban environment. The majority of participants found the experience to be acceptable: pleasant and nonaversive, and they walked freely through the VR model for approximately 20 min, on average. Using modifiable VR models to pre-test built-environment changes for their impacts on walking behavior appears to be a feasible and acceptable approach and worthy of continued research investigation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Katrina Oselinsky
- Department of Psychology, College of Natural Sciences, Colorado State University, Fort Collins, CO, USA.
| | - Amanda N Spitzer
- Department of Psychology, College of Natural Sciences, Colorado State University, Fort Collins, CO, USA
| | - Yiqing Yu
- Department of Psychology, College of Natural Sciences, Colorado State University, Fort Collins, CO, USA
| | - Francisco R Ortega
- Department of Computer Science, Colorado State University, Fort Collins, CO, USA
| | - Laura H Malinin
- Department of Design and Merchandising, College of Health and Human Sciences, Colorado State University, Fort Collins, CO, USA
| | - Kelly A Curl
- Department of Horticulture and Landscape Architecture, College of Agricultural Sciences, Colorado State University, Fort Collins, CO, USA
| | - Heather Leach
- Department of Community and Behavioral Health, Colorado School of Public Health, Fort Collins, CO, USA
- Department of Health and Exercise Science, College of Health and Human Sciences, Fort Collins, CO, USA
| | - Dan J Graham
- Department of Psychology, College of Natural Sciences, Colorado State University, Fort Collins, CO, USA
- Department of Community and Behavioral Health, Colorado School of Public Health, Fort Collins, CO, USA
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5
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Wiesing M, Zimmermann E. Serial dependencies between locomotion and visual space. Sci Rep 2023; 13:3302. [PMID: 36849556 PMCID: PMC9970965 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-023-30265-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/25/2022] [Accepted: 02/20/2023] [Indexed: 03/01/2023] Open
Abstract
How do we know the spatial distance of objects around us? Only by physical interaction within an environment can we measure true physical distances. Here, we investigated the possibility that travel distances, measured during walking, could be used to calibrate visual spatial perception. The sensorimotor contingencies that arise during walking were carefully altered using virtual reality and motion tracking. Participants were asked to walk to a briefly highlighted location. During walking, we systematically changed the optic flow, i.e., the ratio between the visual and physical motion speed. Although participants remained unaware of this manipulation, they walked a shorter or longer distance as a function of the optic flow speed. Following walking, participants were required to estimate the perceived distance of visual objects. We found that visual estimates were serially dependent on the experience of the manipulated flow in the previous trial. Additional experiments confirmed that to affect visual perception, both visual and physical motion are required. We conclude that the brain constantly uses movements to measure space for both, actions, and perception.
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Affiliation(s)
- Michael Wiesing
- Institute for Experimental Psychology, Heinrich Heine University Duesseldorf, Düsseldorf, Germany.
| | - Eckart Zimmermann
- Institute for Experimental Psychology, Heinrich Heine University Duesseldorf, Düsseldorf, Germany
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Creem-Regehr SH, Stefanucci JK, Bodenheimer B. Perceiving distance in virtual reality: theoretical insights from contemporary technologies. Philos Trans R Soc Lond B Biol Sci 2023; 378:20210456. [PMID: 36511405 PMCID: PMC9745869 DOI: 10.1098/rstb.2021.0456] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/15/2022] Open
Abstract
Decades of research have shown that absolute egocentric distance is underestimated in virtual environments (VEs) when compared with the real world. This finding has implications on the use of VEs for applications that require an accurate sense of absolute scale. Fortunately, this underperception of scale can be attenuated by several factors, making perception more similar to (but still not the same as) that of the real world. Here, we examine these factors as two categories: (i) experience inherent to the observer, and (ii) characteristics inherent to the display technology. We analyse how these factors influence the sources of information for absolute distance perception with the goal of understanding how the scale of virtual spaces is calibrated. We identify six types of cues that change with these approaches, contributing both to a theoretical understanding of depth perception in VEs and a call for future research that can benefit from changing technologies. This article is part of the theme issue 'New approaches to 3D vision'.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | - Bobby Bodenheimer
- Department of Computer Science, Vanderbilt University, Nashville, TN 37235, USA
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McLaren R, Chaudhary S, Rashid U, Ravindran S, Taylor D. Reliability of the triangle completion test in the real-world and in virtual reality. Front Hum Neurosci 2022; 16:945953. [PMID: 36034112 PMCID: PMC9411518 DOI: 10.3389/fnhum.2022.945953] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/17/2022] [Accepted: 07/29/2022] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Background The triangle completion test has been used to assess egocentric wayfinding for decades, yet there is little information on its reliability. We developed a virtual reality (VR) based test and investigated whether either test of spatial navigation was reliable. Objective To examine test-retest reliability of the real-world and VR triangle completion tests. A secondary objective was to examine the usability of the VR based test. Materials and methods Thirty healthy adults aged 18–45 years were recruited to this block randomized study. Participants completed two sessions of triangle completion tests in the real-world and VR on the same day with a break between sessions. Results In both test versions distance from the endpoint and angle of deviation showed poor test-retest reliability (r < 0.5). Distance traveled had moderate reliability in both the real-world and VR tests (r = 0.55 95% CI [0.23, 0.76]; r = 0.66 95% CI [0.4, 0.83, respectively]). The VR triangle test showed poor correlation with the real-world test. Conclusion The triangle completion test has poor test-retest reliability and demonstrates poor concurrent validity between the real-world and VR. Nevertheless, it was feasible to translate a real-world test of spatial navigation into VR. VR provides opportunities for development of clinically relevant spatial navigation tests in the future.
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Impact of partial proxy embodiment on the awareness of linear distance in omnidirectional treadmill enabled immersive virtual built environment. COMPUTERS IN HUMAN BEHAVIOR REPORTS 2022. [DOI: 10.1016/j.chbr.2022.100203] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/23/2022] Open
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No faces, just body movements—Effects of perceived emotional valence of body kinetics and psychological factors on interpersonal distance behavior within an immersive virtual environment. CURRENT PSYCHOLOGY 2022. [DOI: 10.1007/s12144-022-03082-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
Abstract
Abstract
In an immersive virtual environment, it was investigated how the perception of body kinetics contributes to social distance behavior when the facial expression and other physical properties of a social interaction partner cannot be perceived. Based on point light displays, both the subject and the social interaction partner were depicted as stick figures, both moving simultaneously in the same space. In addition, the effects of relevant psychological factors of the perceiver on social distance behavior were examined. The results were consistent with those from studies with facial expressions or realistic full-body interactants. A greater distance was maintained from characters with emotionally negative expressions of body kinetics. Stationary objects stimuli, which were also included in the study, were mostly passed closer than neutral agents. However, the results are not entirely clear and require further investigation. Depressive symptom burden and factors mainly related to anxiety and avoidance showed effects on social distance in an IVE. The CID, a test often used to assess the interpersonal distance at which a person is comfortable, correlated with that overt behavior. In summary, the results of the study provide experimental evidence that the perception of body kinetics has a similarly significant influence on the regulation of social distance as, for example, facial affect. Implementing this study in real life would be incredibly complex, if not impossible. It is interesting to see that the comparatively simple method used in this study to create and operate an immersive virtual environment turned out to be suitable for studying at least simple types of social behavior based on body movements.
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Hartle B, Wilcox LM. Stereoscopic depth constancy for physical objects and their virtual counterparts. J Vis 2022; 22:9. [PMID: 35315875 PMCID: PMC8944385 DOI: 10.1167/jov.22.4.9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/24/2022] Open
Abstract
Stereopsis plays an important role in depth perception; if so, disparity-defined depth should not vary with distance. However, studies of stereoscopic depth constancy often report systematic distortions in depth judgments over distance, particularly for virtual stimuli. Our aim was to understand how depth estimation is impacted by viewing distance and display-based cue conflicts by replicating physical objects in virtual counterparts. To this end, we measured perceived depth using virtual textured half-cylinders and identical three-dimensional (3D) printed versions at two viewing distances under monocular and binocular conditions. Virtual stimuli were viewed using a mirror stereoscope and an Oculus Rift head-mounted display (HMD), while physical stimuli were viewed in a controlled test environment. Depth judgments were similar in both virtual apparatuses, which suggests that variations in the viewing geometry and optics of the HMD have little impact on perceived depth. When viewing physical stimuli binocularly, judgments were accurate and exhibited stereoscopic depth constancy. However, in all cases, depth was underestimated for virtual stimuli and failed to achieve depth constancy. It is clear that depth constancy is only complete for cue-rich physical stimuli and that the failure of constancy in virtual stimuli is due to the presence of the vergence-accommodation conflict. Further, our post hoc analysis revealed that prior experience with virtual and physical environments had a strong effect on depth judgments. That is, performance in virtual environments was enhanced by limited exposure to a related task using physical objects.
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Affiliation(s)
- Brittney Hartle
- Department of Psychology and Centre for Vision Research, York University, Toronto, Ontario, Canada.,
| | - Laurie M Wilcox
- Department of Psychology and Centre for Vision Research, York University, Toronto, Ontario, Canada.,
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11
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Kuroda N, Teramoto W. Contribution of motor and proprioceptive information to visuotactile interaction in peripersonal space during bike riding. Exp Brain Res 2021; 240:491-501. [PMID: 34800141 DOI: 10.1007/s00221-021-06269-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/18/2021] [Accepted: 11/04/2021] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
The space immediately around the body, known as the peripersonal space (PPS), plays an important role in interactions with the environment. Specific representations are reported to be constructed in the brain. PPS expansion reportedly occurs during whole-body self-motions, such as walking; however, little is known regarding how dynamic cues in proprioceptive/motor information contribute to such phenomena. Thus, we investigated this issue using a pedaling bike situation. We defined PPS as the maximum distance at which a visual probe facilitated tactile detection at the chest. Experiment 1 compared two conditions where participants did or did not pedal the bike at a constant speed while observing an optic flow that simulated forward self-motion (pedaling and no pedaling). Experiment 2 investigated the effect of pedal resistances (high and low) while presenting the same optic flow as in Experiment 1. The results revealed that the reaction time (RT) difference (probe RT - baseline RT) was larger for the pedaling than for the no-pedaling condition. However, pedal resistance differences hardly affected the visuotactile interaction, although the participants clearly experienced differences in force. These results suggest that proprioceptive/motor cues can contribute to the modulation of PPS representation, but dynamic information included in these cues may have little influence.
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Affiliation(s)
- Naoki Kuroda
- Graduate School of Social and Cultural Sciences, Kumamoto University, 2-40-1 Kurokami, Kumamoto, 860-8555, Japan.
| | - Wataru Teramoto
- Graduate School of Humanities and Social Sciences, Kumamoto University, 2-40-1 Kurokami, Kumamoto, 860-8555, Japan
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Feldstein IT, Dyszak GN. Road crossing decisions in real and virtual environments: A comparative study on simulator validity. ACCIDENT; ANALYSIS AND PREVENTION 2020; 137:105356. [PMID: 32059135 DOI: 10.1016/j.aap.2019.105356] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/03/2019] [Revised: 11/03/2019] [Accepted: 11/04/2019] [Indexed: 06/10/2023]
Abstract
Virtual reality (VR) is a valuable tool for the assessment of human perception and behavior in a risk-free environment. Investigators should, however, ensure that the used virtual environment is validated in accordance with the experiment's intended research question since behavior in virtual environments has been shown to differ to behavior in real environments. This article presents the street crossing decisions of 30 participants who were facing an approaching vehicle and had to decide at what moment it was no longer safe to cross, applying the step-back method. The participants executed the task in a real environment and also within a highly immersive VR setup involving a head-mounted display (HMD). The results indicate significant differences between the two settings regarding the participants' behaviors. The time-to-contact of approaching vehicles was significantly lower for crossing decisions in the virtual environment than for crossing decisions in the real one. Additionally, it was demonstrated that participants based their crossing decisions in the real environment on the temporal distance of the approaching vehicle (i.e., time-to-contact), whereas the crossing decisions in the virtual environment seemed to depend on the vehicle's spatial distance, neglecting the vehicle's velocity. Furthermore, a deeper analysis suggests that crossing decisions were not affected by factors such as the participant's gender or the order in which they faced the real and the virtual environment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ilja T Feldstein
- Harvard Medical School, Dept. of Ophthalmology, Schepens Eye Research Institute, Boston, MA, 02114, USA.
| | - Georg N Dyszak
- Technical University of Munich, Dept. of Mechanical Engineering, Chair of Ergonomics, 85748, Garching, Germany
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