The Role of Mandatory Reporting, Perpetrator and Violence Type, and Alcohol Consumption in Undergraduates' Likelihood of Disclosing Sexual Violence

It remains unclear if mandatory reporting (MR) of sexual violence (SV) in universities impacts student reports of SV. MR may deter students from disclosing SV under certain circumstances (e.g., alcohol, perpetrator). This study evaluated students' likelihood of reporting SV under MR policy across perpetrators, violence, and alcohol use. Female students received instructional manipulations describing either confidential or mandatory reporting policies before reading four vignettes describing SV. They rated their likelihood of reporting each vignette. Significant differences arose across vignettes, conditions, and alcohol consumption. This indicates MR can significantly decrease reporting likelihood in some cases, while alcohol consumption may increase the likelihood.

The Revised Sexual Experiences Survey Victimization Version (SES-V): Conceptualization, Modifications, Items and Scoring

The Sexual Experiences Survey [SES] is considered the gold standard measure of non-consensual sexual experiences. This article introduces a new victimization version [SES-V] developed by a multidisciplinary collaboration, the first revision since 2007. The 2024 SES-V is designed to measure the construct of sexual exploitation since the 14th birthday. Notable revisions are adoption of a freely given permission standard for non-consent, introduction of new tactics and acts, including made to perform or to penetrate another person's body, tactics-first wording order, and emphasis on gender and sexual orientation inclusivity. The SES-V is modularized to allow whole or partial administration. Modules include Non-contact, Technology-facilitated, Illegal (largely penetrative), and Verbally pressured sexual exploitation. Tables provide item text, multiple scoring approaches, module follow-up, specific incident description and demographics. Future plans include developing a scoring algorithm based on weighting our hypothesized dimensions of sexual exploitation severity: invasiveness, pressure, and norm violation combined with frequency. This article is the first in a special issue on the SES-V. Subsequent articles focus on the taxonomies and literature that informed each module. The issue concludes with two empirical papers demonstrating the feasibility and validity of the SES-V: (1) psychometric comparison with the 2007 SES-SFV; and (2) prevalence data from a census-matched adult community sample.

Nonconsensual Sexual Experience Histories of Incarcerated Men: A Mixed Methods Approach

Nonconsensual sexual experiences (NSEs) may contribute to mental health concerns among incarcerated individuals, yet NSEs are understudied in this population. This study takes a novel approach in examining the prevalence of NSEs among incarcerated males by utilizing both quantitative and qualitative measures. The sample consisted of 189 men from three provincial maximum-security prisons in Ontario, Canada. Based on quantitative findings, 44.2% of the sample experienced NSEs before the age of 18, and 41.7% of the sample endorsed an experience that fit the legal definition of a NSEs as adults. Participants also responded to a qualitative open-ended question about their history of NSEs. Based on qualitative findings, a total of 23% of the men reported at least one incident of a NSE (e.g., child and adult). Based Findings highlight the high prevalence of NSEs among incarcerated men with quantitative responses demonstrating how the use of a behavioral questionnaire may, to some extent, correct for underreporting of NSEs. Qualitative responses illustrate the lived experience of incarcerated men and provide a deeper understanding of their NSEs. Responses also speak to the lack of resources and support available to these men. Findings underscore the need for proactive approaches in meeting mental health needs of incarcerated men in general and with regard to NSEs in particular. Results may inform the development of future correctional procedures (i.e., intake protocols that account for men with NSEs) and resources to support incarcerated men in navigating the psychological impact of non-consensual sexual experiences.

Women Higher Education Students' Experiences of Sexual Violence: A Scoping Review and Thematic Synthesis of Qualitative Studies

Sexual violence (SV) against women is common in higher education settings, causing serious harm to the health, well-being, and academic outcomes of victim/survivors. There have been numerous systematic reviews of the quantitative evidence on this topic, highlighting the prevalence, health impacts, and barriers and facilitators to help-seeking after SV. To date, however, qualitative research exploring the lived experience of women higher education students has not been synthesized. This scoping review and thematic synthesis of qualitative studies aims to map the global evidence on women higher education students' experiences of SV and explore how they understand and make sense of their experiences. We searched five databases (CinAHL, Academic Search Complete, Medline, PsychInfo, and SocIndex) in January 2023 for relevant articles. Eligible articles needed to be published in English and describe qualitative or mixed-methods primary research on the lived experiences of women higher education students who were victim/survivors of SV. In all, 34 articles describing 32 studies met these inclusion criteria. Thematic analysis of data extracted from the included studies suggests that, for women higher education students, the experience of SV is characterized by profound shame, with often-irreversible impacts on hopes and plans for the future. Yet, at the same time, SV is normalized and expected as a part of the "student experience." Furthermore, an imagined "specter" of "real violence" is held up as a constant comparison that serves to minimize and trivialize their experiences. These findings have important implications for higher education providers seeking to improve programs to address SV.

"Just something that happened?": Mental health impact of disclosure and framing of sexual violence in older victims

INTRODUCTION

Despite the important impact of sexual violence (SV) on mental health, few victims disclose their experiences. Although research in adult victims suggests that SV disclosure could protect against long-term mental health problems, studies in older adults are lacking.

OBJECTIVES

To establish the prevalence of depression, anxiety, posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD), suicide attempts, and self-harm, their association with SV disclosure, and the moderating effect of sociodemographic characteristics and SV framing in the relation between SV disclosure and the different mental health outcomes in older SV victims.

METHODS

Data on sexual victimisation, mental health, SV framing, and disclosure were collected through structured face-to-face interviews with 171 randomly selected sexually victimised adults of 70 years and older living in Belgium. SV was measured using behaviourally specific questions based on a broad definition. Mental health outcomes were measured using validated scales.

RESULTS

Depression, anxiety and PTSD were reported by 34%, 33% and 9% of participants respectively, 5% had attempted suicide and 1% reported self-harm during lifetime. SV framing was associated with the kind of help victims consulted. SV disclosure was not linked with depression and anxiety, but was associated with an increase of PTSD symptoms in older victims with care dependency (p = 0.004) or a chronic illness and/or disability (p = 0.025).

CONCLUSIONS

SV disclosure in itself does not protect against adverse mental health outcomes in old age. Capacity building of professionals trough training and development of clinical guidelines and care procedures may increase appropriate response to SV disclosure by older victims.

Just One Shot? The Contextual Effects of Matched and Unmatched Intoxication on Perceptions of Consent in Ambiguous Alcohol-fueled Sexual Encounters

The current research examined how contextual factors-the quantity of alcohol consumed by each partner, and whether this quantity matched-influenced how alcohol-fueled sexual encounters were perceived with regard to consent, coercion, sexual assault, and perceived responsibility of the focal partner for the outcome of the encounter. Across four studies (Ntotal = 535), participants read vignettes in which one person described a sexual encounter they had following a night out drinking. These scenarios differed within studies as a function of quantified alcohol consumed (1 shot; 15 shots) and whether both people in the vignettes consumed the same amount of alcohol (matched; unmatched). They also differed between studies as a function of whether the couples described were mixed gender or same gender. Across all four studies, scenarios in which both people in the scenario consumed different quantities of alcohol (i.e., 15 vs. 1 shot) were seen as less consensual, more coercive, and more likely to be an assault compared to scenarios where consumption was matched, especially at lower levels of intoxication (i.e., 1 shot each vs. 15 shots each). However, focal partners were also seen as less responsible for the outcome of the interaction when levels of intoxication were unmatched compared to matched. This pattern replicated across scenarios depicting same-gender and mixed-gender couples. These findings suggest that people prioritize information regarding whether sexual partners are "matched" or "unmatched" in terms of their intoxication when evaluating whether ambiguous sexual encounters are consensual and perceived individual responsibility.

Measuring sexual violence perpetration acknowledgment: Testing the effects of label and response format

Individual acknowledgment of sexual assault and rape perpetration is extraordinarily low in prior research. Only about 1% of individuals report perpetrating rape, in contrast to the 6% perpetrating rape as estimated by using behaviorally specific items that exclude stigmatized words such as rape. The goal of this study was to examine two possible measurement mechanisms for increasing perpetration acknowledgment: label choice and response format. In Sample 1 (N = 291), participants completed two acknowledgment items which varied in label choice. One item used the term rape; one used the term sexual assault. Acknowledgment of perpetration using the label sexual assault was significantly higher than when using the term rape (6.38%-1.71%, p = .01, Cohen's d = 0.44). In Sample 2 (N = 438), participants were presented with a scaled and a dichotomous sexual assault item at different parts of the overall survey. Sexual assault acknowledgment was higher on the scaled item compared to the dichotomous item (15.75% vs. 3.2%, p < .0001, Cohen's d = 0.64). Rates of sexual perpetration as measured behaviorally were higher for ambiguous acknowledgment types ("might or might not," "probably not") than for those reporting "definitely not," (76.81% vs. 29.0%, p < .0001, Cohen's d = 0.59). The two different measurement strategies tested here, using a less stigmatized label such as sexual assault and using a scaled response format, both increased rates of perpetration acknowledgment 3-15x greater than rates documented in prior research.

Perceptions of Sexual Violence Terms Used in Statutes Throughout the United States

The terminology used to describe sexually violent offenses vary, and how these labels are interpreted by the public remains unclear. This study explores the terms for the primary-legally most severe-offense of sexual violence in legal statutes across the United States and investigates how different terms evoke different perceptions about crime severity. Results indicate that nine different terms are used to identify the primary offense of sexual violence in state statutes, with significant differences in perceived severity for these terms. The findings have implications for the public's (mis)understanding of sexual violence and the treatment of survivors and perpetrators.

Sexual victimization experience, acknowledgment labeling and rape empathy among college men and women

OBJECTIVE

Sexual victimization experience is a health concern among college students and rape empathy may help address it. Empathy with a rape victim was examined based on sexual victimization experience, acknowledgment (i.e., labeling experience "sexual assault," "rape"), and gender.

METHOD

Undergraduates (n = 531) completed measures of sexual victimization experience and rape empathy.

RESULTS

Acknowledged victims reported greater empathy than unacknowledged victims and nonvictims, but the latter two groups did not differ. Unacknowledged female victims reported greater empathy than unacknowledged male victims, but no gender difference emerged for acknowledged victims or nonvictims. Victimized men were less likely than victimized women to acknowledge their experience.

CONCLUSIONS

The association found between acknowledgment and empathy may inform efforts to address sexual victimization (e.g., prevention, victim support), and men should not be overlooked. Unacknowledged victims and greater acknowledgment rates among women than men may have contributed to previously reported gender differences in rape empathy.

Partisan bias in responses to sexual misconduct allegations against male politicians

Across two studies, we tested whether evaluations of sexual misconduct allegations against male politicians are made in a partisan biased manner. First, we investigated the likelihood a sexual misconduct allegation made by a female staffer was perceived as legitimate by Democratic and Republican participants when the accused politician’s party affiliation was aligned (versus unaligned) with the participant’s own affiliation (Study 1). We also tested whether partisan bias was conditional on the strength of the participant’s expressive partisanship (Study 2). In Study 1, 182 Democratic and 159 Republican affiliates (N = 341), recruited via Amazon Mechanical Turk, were randomly allocated to one of three conditions (Democratic, Republican, or unaffiliated accused politician). Findings indicated that Republican participants were less likely than Democrats to perceive a sexual misconduct allegation as legitimate, irrespective of the politician’s party affiliation. Nonetheless, participants were not more likely to perceive a sexual misconduct allegation against an unaligned politician as more legitimate than against a politician of their own party. However, in a replication of Study 1 with a larger sample (301 Democratic and 301 Republican affiliates), Republicans (but not Democrats) demonstrated partisan bias in judgements of the legitimacy of misconduct allegations. Expressive partisanship did not moderate this partisan effect.

Sexual femicide, non-sexual femicide and rape: Where do the differences lie? A continuum in a pattern of violence against women

Violence against women is a growing health problem, especially when perpetrated in intimate relationships. Despite increasing attention, there is little comparative evidence on the different types of violence involved and there is a paucity of research on sexual femicides. This study examines cases of violence against women in northern Italy, focusing on sexual and non-sexual femicides and comparing them with rape that does not result in femicides. The sample included 500 women who were victims of sexual and non-sexual femicides, and of rape. Results show sexual femicides mostly involved unknown victims or women who were prostitutes. Sexual femicidal offenders used improper weapons to kill their victims, acted in secluded locations, and fled the crime scene; their crime was more likely the result of predatory intentions, with antisociality and sexual deviance being the most significant factors related to this type of femicide. The criminal and violent pattern that characterized sexual femicides in this study shared significant similarities with the pattern of violence involved in rape. Rape victims were in fact mostly unknown, or involved in a brief relationship with their killer. When the victim was known it was more likely that the abuse occurred at home and in front of the woman's children. Rapists were often under the effect of alcohol or drugs. Non-sexual femicides mainly involved known victims, and they were more often committed in the context of domestic disputes. It was not seldom that the long relationship between the victim and perpetrator was likely to be characterized by contentiousness, suggesting that the woman was often victim of an oppressive climate of emotional tension and domination. Morbid jealousy contributed to aggravating the tone of a controlling relationship. Non-sexual femicides bore more similarities to cases of rape within the pattern of intimate partner violence. Findings are discussed in terms of their implications for prevention and intervention.

Victim and Perpetrator Acknowledgement of Intimate Partner Violence and Victim Psychopathology

The present study assesses differences between acknowledged and unacknowledged victims in post-victimization psychopathology, abuse disability and coping. Few studies have examined abuse acknowledgment among intimate partner violence (IPV) victims. To our knowledge, this study is the first to use an experimental manipulation to assess changes in acknowledgment among IPV victims. Female undergraduate students currently in dating relationships completed demographic, coping and psychopathology questionnaires, and the Conflict Tactics Scale (CTS). They then watched a video of an IPV perpetrator who either acknowledged abuse or did not acknowledge abuse. Following the video, participants completed a psychopathology questionnaire and a post-video acknowledgment assessment. Approximately 38% of the sample reported IPV victimization. Only 7.89% acknowledged victimization. Acknowledged IPV victims had the highest mean victimization score but reported psychopathology similar to nonvictims on all subscales except phobic anxiety. Unacknowledged victims reported greater psychopathology, depression, anxiety, and hostility than nonvictims and were more symptomatic overall. Unacknowledged victims reported more frequent use of avoidant coping strategies than nonvictims. These strategies included substance use, self-blame, and behavioral disengagement. Acknowledged and unacknowledged victims reported greater abuse disability than nonvictims, and acknowledged victims reported greater life restriction than unacknowledged victims. Following the video, the number of acknowledged victims nearly doubled, and acknowledged victims reported increased depression. On the basis of these findings, clinicians and researchers should carefully consider acknowledgment as a potential factor in post-victimization mental health and explore ways to increases victim acknowledgment.

A Review of Undergraduate Student Disclosures of Sexual Violence

INTRODUCTION

Sexual violence (SV) has been a prevalent issue on college campuses for decades. Researchers, universities, and legislators have tried to understand and prevent it. Despite these efforts, 25% of female and 6% of male undergraduate students will experience a nonconsensual sexual experience (NSE) as a student. An immense amount of research has been conducted on the prevalence, effects, resources for, and outcomes of SV over the last few decades.

OBJECTIVES

The current paper aims to compile and summarize the extant literature on undergraduate student disclosures of sexual violence. The objective is to provide a comprehensive review of the research.

METHODS

A literature search was performed using the terms sexual violence, NSE, undergraduate students, informal and formal reporting, and disclosure.

RESULTS

Disclosure patterns and outcomes for survivors vary widely based on individual factors including type of disclosure source (ie, informal or formal reporting), disclosure recipient response, previous history of NSEs, and personal identity (ie, gender identity, sexual orientation, race/ethnicity). Though there are many formal resources (ie, police, Title IX), the majority of survivors report to informal sources (ie, family or friends). In addition to researching survivors' experiences and rates of disclosures, research also evaluates how disclosure recipients perceive their response to a survivor's disclosure, their likelihood of receiving a disclosure based on their own individual identities, and how the disclosure impacts the recipient and their relationship with the survivor.

CONCLUSION

The individualized response and decision to report SV has made prevention and the creation of effective resources difficult. As there are so many individual factors to consider when evaluating how or whether a NSE will be disclosed, future research should consider these individual differences and use them to create more effective reporting sources and resources. Sears-Greer MA, Friehart BK, Meston CM. A Review of Undergraduate Student Disclosures of Sexual Violence. Sex Med Rev 2022;XX:XXX-XXX.

It Happened to a Friend of Mine: The Influence of Perspective-taking on the Acknowledgment of Sexual Assault Following Ambiguous Sexual Encounters

Failure to acknowledge that one has been the victim of sexual violence is an important, yet understudied, barrier that prevents women from seeking appropriate support following sexual violence. Drawing from a literature of demonstrating the benefits of self-distancing when evaluating emotionally charged personal information, the effects of self-distancing on acknowledgment of sexual assault were tested. Four experimental studies (N_total = 1,609) manipulated perspective-taking, either by asking women to imagine a series of hypothetical sexual encounters as experiences that happened to themselves or to their friends, or by asking women to describe a sexual experience from a first- or third-person perspective. Findings from the studies suggest that taking another person's perspective can help women to label ambiguous sexual experiences as more inappropriate and coercive. Notably, this did not seem to stem from women downplaying or dismissing experiences when they imagined themselves, as they reported anticipating more negative and less positive emotions in the scenarios where they imagined themselves compared to a friend. Nonetheless, in spite of the stronger anticipated negative emotional response when imagining themselves, women were less open to information about resources associated with sexual assault and support when they imagined themselves compared to a friend. This pattern of findings replicated for own, past sexual experiences but only to the extent that women spontaneously engaged in distanced perspective-taking themselves. This research suggests in addition to using contextual information to disambiguate and determine whether a sexual experience was inappropriate, taking a distanced perspective might provide a route through which women can come to terms with the experience and open up to the use of community-based services and sexual assault resources.

A Behavioral Science Framework for Understanding College Campus Sexual Assault

We propose a behavioral-science approach to sexual assault on college campuses. In this framework, people commit assault when aspects of the immediate situation trigger certain psychological states. No set of mental processes or situational configurations is a precise predictor of assault. Instead, the interaction between mental processes and situational configurations predicts when sexual assault is more or less likely to occur. We begin with an illustrative story to show how a behavioral-science approach is relevant to sexual assault. Next, we map out a framework that suggests how behavioral theories of situations and mental processes have been or could be used to describe, predict, and develop ideas for the reduction of sexual assault. Relevant situational configurations include geographical configurations, local situational and informational cues, and situation-based power. Theories of mental processes include person perception, social norms, moral reasoning, and goals. Our framework can be used to demonstrate how "good" people can commit assault and how individuals can and will refrain from assault within institutions with a "bad" record. Compared with previous theories of sexual assault, a behavioral-science framework offers unique understanding and generative methods for addressing sexual assault on college campuses.

"When You're in a Relationship, You Say No, but Your Partner Insists": Sexual Dating Violence and Ambiguity Among Girls and Young Women

Sexual dating violence (DV) is highly prevalent and associated with deleterious outcomes. Unfortunately, this form of violence remains poorly understood. Furthermore, the measures used to assess sexual DV may not account for the various manifestations of sexual DV, which limits our understanding of this problem. This study aimed to (a) explore how girls and young women describe their experiences of sexual DV and (b) explore whether the taxonomy on intimate partner sexual violence developed by Bagwell-Gray and colleagues could be applicable to girls and young women's experiences of sexual DV. A total of 71 adolescent girls and young women who identified themselves as heterosexual were recruited. Sexual DV was assessed using an adapted version of the Sexual Experiences Survey, followed by a semistructured interview. Findings revealed that 29.6% of participants reported sexual DV victimization in the past 12 months. A direct content analysis was performed based on the taxonomy of Bagwell-Gray and colleagues. Four manifestations of sexual DV were illustrated from the youth's narratives: (a) sexual coercion, (b) sexual assault, (c) sexual abuse, and (d) forced sexual activities. Our results underscore the ambiguity of sexual consent and definition of sexual DV among adolescent girls and young women. This research further supports the necessity to develop and implement prevention programs that specifically target sexual DV in this population.

Does Perpetrator Occupation Affect Classification of Sexual Assault?

Classification of sexual assault varies based on the characteristics of the victim, perpetrator, and event. However, most studies focus on the individual characteristics of participants asked to classify the assault, the victims' characteristics, or the event; few have examined variations in the perpetrator. Therefore, this study examined whether the occupation of the perpetrator affected the classification of the event as sexual assault. Participants included a primarily White female sample of undergraduate students (n = 401) at a south-Atlantic university. They completed a paper-and-pencil survey containing an ambiguous sexual assault encounter where the occupation of the perpetrator (athlete, reporter, college student, or politician) was randomly varied. Participants were asked to classify whether the encounter was sexual assault and what an appropriate punishment might be. Additional measures included the Illinois Rape Myth Acceptance Scale (IRMA) and questions about personal experience with sexual assault. Overall, most participants labeled the encounter as sexual assault, indicating that college students are aware of the legal parameters for providing consent. However, this classification occurred differentially based on the occupation of the perpetrator. Participants were most likely to label the athlete as committing sexual assault, followed by the college student, politician, and reporter, respectively. Females and those who reject rape myths were more likely to label the scenario as sexual assault. A "personal apology" and a "sexual rehabilitation program" were the most common punishments selected for the perpetrator. These findings highlight potential concerns and the need for additional training when college students adjudicate sexual assault reports and determine appropriate consequences.

Exploring ambivalent rape acknowledgment and posttraumatic stress symptoms among college women who have experienced rape: What's in a name?

The present study explored rape acknowledgment among 131 college women survivors of rape utilizing three subgroups: acknowledged rape, unacknowledged rape, and ambivalent acknowledgment. Posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) symptom clusters and parameters of victimization and were compared between the subgroups. Of the participants, 28.2 % were classified as ambivalent rape acknowledgment, 49.6 % as acknowledged rape, and 22.1 % as unacknowledged rape. Across all four PTSD symptom clusters, the ambivalent acknowledgment group had significantly higher PTSD symptoms than the unacknowledged group. With the exception of hyperarousal symptoms, PTSD symptoms did not differ between the acknowledged and ambivalent acknowledgment groups. With regard to potential group differences in exposure to various rape tactics (i.e., physical force, threat, incapacitation), the acknowledged group indicated (a) exposure to a greater number of rape tactics relative to the other groups, (b) higher likelihood of endorsing rape via threat than the ambivalent acknowledgment group, and (c) more frequent endorsement of forcible rape than the unacknowledged group. Results are discussed in light of screening methods to assess for PTSD symptoms among rape survivors, as well as the recent changes to the Title IX law regarding sexual misconduct reports on college campuses.

Rape Acknowledgment and Sexual Minority Women's Mental Health and Drinking Behaviors

Adult sexual assault (ASA) has been linked to numerous negative psychological and behavioral outcomes. Recent research suggests that postassault adaptation may differ based on how the victim conceptualizes their ASA. For instance, women who label their rape experiences as such (i.e., acknowledged rape victims) report worse mental health symptoms than women who do not (i.e., unacknowledged rape victims). To date, this literature has focused exclusively on heterosexual women. Relative to heterosexuals, sexual minority women (SMW) are at greater risk for sexual assault and report worse postassault outcomes, yet little is known about rape acknowledgment in this at-risk population. Moreover, it is unclear how distal factors, such as childhood sexual abuse (CSA), may influence SMW's rape acknowledgment following ASA. A total of 205 self-identified lesbian and bisexual women were categorized into four groups (no ASA, ASA that did not involve rape, rape acknowledged, rape unacknowledged) and compared across mental health and drinking outcomes. Roughly, 42% of the sample experienced rape, and of those, 60% were acknowledged rape victims. Results revealed no statistical differences between acknowledged and unacknowledged rape victims in terms of mental health or alcohol use. However, relative to comparison groups, SMW who were acknowledged rape victims reported greater mental health symptoms, and both acknowledged and unacknowledged rape victims reported greater hazardous drinking. Among SMW with rape histories, greater CSA severity increased the probability of acknowledging rape. These findings provide valuable information regarding SMW's postassault adaptation and can contribute to interventions to assist SMW who experience sexual assault.

"Miscommunication" and Undergraduate Women's Conceptualizations of Sexual Assault: A Qualitative Analysis

Approximately 60% of legally defined rape victims do not label their experiences as "rape," most of whom label the experience as "a serious miscommunication." However, little research has examined why women choose this label. Labeling rape as a miscommunication could be problematic if chosen due to stereotypical conceptions that one's experience is not "real" rape. The present study used a mixed-methodological approach to understand why women might refer to rape as a "miscommunication," and how their reasons for labeling might differ from those who label their experiences and those who are nonlabeled (i.e., unequivocally state that they were "not victimized"). Participants included 123 undergraduate women who experienced rape. Participants responded to how they labeled rape and answered questions regarding assault characteristics, disclosure, reporting, and self- and perpetrator blame. Chi-square analyses assessed labeling group differences. Responses to an open-ended question about factors contributing to their labeling decision were content analyzed. Whereas miscommunication-labeled and nonlabeled victims reported similar assault characteristics in the quantitative analyses, qualitative content analyses revealed varying reasons for labeling rape as miscommunication, not victimization, and rape. Over three quarters of miscommunication-labeled victims reported that one or more of the following factors influenced their labeling: victim and perpetrator substance use, sexual activity prior to the rape, and perceptions that one did not express nonconsent strongly enough and that the perpetrator "did not realize" their lack of desire. Whereas miscommunication-labeled and nonlabeled victims reported similar assault characteristics, the extent to which those assault characteristics affected their labeling differed. Those who labeled their experiences as miscommunication gave reasons for their label that centered on factors which reflect inconsistencies between their experiences and "stereotypical rape." Misperceptions of rape can be addressed via prevention programming and clinical work.

Predicting College Women's Body-Esteem and Self-Esteem Based on Rape Experience, Recency, and Labeling

We examined body-esteem and self-esteem based on rape experience, rape labeling status (yes; no) and recency of rape (recently, within past year; earlier, between age 14 and the past year). Undergraduate women (n = 1,005) completed the Body-Esteem Scale, Rosenberg Self-Esteem Scale, and Sexual Experiences Survey. Women raped within the past year (recently) reported lower levels of both body-esteem and self-esteem than those raped over a year ago (earlier) and nonvictims, but women raped earlier did not differ from nonvictims. Rape labeling status was not significant. Findings identify lower body-esteem, in addition to lower self-esteem, as correlates of recent rape.

A Trauma-Informed Approach to Sexual Violence Research Ethics and Open Science

The practice of ethics in social science research is a reflexive process of self-review to define a profession's collective responsibility in the face of changing norms and expectations. In recent years, we have seen transformative changes in how society thinks about supporting sexual assault survivors, and how the scientific community thinks about our obligations to society. Decades of research on trauma and its impact has raised awareness about the needs of victimized individuals, giving rise to the trauma-informed practice movement, which emphasizes that service providers must center survivors' well-being in all interactions, decisions, and program practices. The field of sexual assault research helped give rise to this movement and provides empirical support for its guiding tenets, and in this article, we explore how to bring these ideas full circle to begin articulating trauma-informed principles for research. A trauma-informed perspective on research challenges scientists to go beyond the requirements of the Belmont Report (1979) and institutional review boards' (IRB) regulations to develop research procedures that fully support survivors' choice, control, and empowerment. Such reflection on participants' rights is particularly important given the open science movement sweeping academia, which calls on scientists to share their data publicly to promote transparency, replication, and new discoveries. Disseminating data could pose significant safety, privacy, and confidentiality risks for victims of sexual assault, so we need to evaluate what open science means within a trauma-informed framework. In this article, we examine three key stages of the research process-participant recruitment, data collection, and dissemination-and consider how trauma-informed principles could help, but also could complicate, research practices. We explore these tensions and offer potential solutions so that research on sexual trauma embodies trauma-informed practice.

Securing sex: Embattled masculinity and the pressured pursuit of women’s bodies in men’s online sex advice

This article describes findings from a study examining men’s sex advice centered on cultivating masculinity markers by obtaining sex from multiple women. Employing a feminist poststructuralist framework, discourse analysis is used to investigate how casual sex with multiple women is positioned as a crucial requirement in accruing social status and esteem in men’s online Pick-Up Artist (PUA) advice media. Three interpretive repertoires emerged: (a) Embattled Masculinity – defensive and combative themes are invoked to defend male privilege through the concealed pursuit and sexual command of women; (b) Feminine Commodities – women’s bodies are framed as commodities to signify masculinity achievement; and (c) Pressured Pursuit and Consent as Control – men are positioned as authorities in sex, presumed to hold both the responsibility and power to overcome the obstacle of female consent. Obtaining sex from women is the primary objective of PUA advice – an accumulation resource used to bolster an “authentic” masculinity. While securing sex from women is promoted as the main goal, and a fundamental requirement for masculine subjects, references to the value of the women themselves are conspicuously absent or disclaimed.

Understanding sexual consent and nonconsensual sexual experiences in undergraduate women: The role of identification and rape myth acceptance

The current study examined how nonconsensual sexual experiences (NSE) and the self-identification of such experiences as sexual assault play a role in the relationship between rape myth acceptance and sexual consent attitudes. Undergraduate women ( N = 296) completed measures on sexual consent attitudes, their sexual experiences, and rape myth acceptance. Participants were categorized into three groups: those with no NSEs, those with NSEs who identify them as sexual assault (identifiers), and those with NSEs who do not identify them as sexual assault (non-identifiers). Multiple regression analyses to test the moderating effects of group membership on the relationship between rape myth acceptance and sexual consent attitudes were conducted. Results indicated that non-identifiers reported less positive attitudes toward establishing consent and more indirect behavioural approaches to consent than both identifiers and those with no NSE histories. Greater rape myth acceptance was significantly related to a lack of perceived behavioural control and less positive attitudes toward establishing consent in identifiers and those with no NSEs, as well as less awareness and discussion around consent in those with no NSEs. Conversely, rape myth acceptance was not significantly associated with any consent attitudes in non-identifiers. The findings suggest that NSE identification, or a lack of identification of NSEs as sexual assault, is significantly related to sexual consent attitudes that are independent of rape myth acceptance. These findings are discussed in terms of sexual violence education and prevention and future research considerations.

Identification of Nonconsensual Sexual Experiences and the Sexual Self-Schemas of Women: Implications for Sexual Functioning

Many individuals who experience nonconsensual sexual experiences (NSEs) do not identify their experiences with common sexual violence labels (e.g., sexual assault, rape, or abuse), and cognitive mechanisms of identification have yet to be examined. Identification may involve the integration of the experience into sexual self-schemas, which would have implications for sexual well-being. Women were recruited through Amazon's Mechanical Turk (N = 818) to take part in an anonymous online study of sexual experiences. The current study assessed the relationship between textually derived sexual self-schemas and sexual function (measured by the Female Sexual Function Index) in women (M = 35.37 years, SD = 11.27) with NSEs who both did (identifiers, n = 305) and did not (non-identifiers, n = 176) identify with common sexual violence labels, in comparison with those with no NSEs (n = 337). Text analyses revealed nine sexual self-schema themes in participants' essays: Virginity, Openness, Erotophilia, NSEs, Romantic, Sexual Activity, Warmth, Relationships, and Reflection. Analyses demonstrated that identifiers reported significantly poorer sexual functioning and less use of both the Warmth and Openness themes than those with no NSEs. Identifiers also invoked the NSE theme more frequently than both those with no NSE histories and non-identifiers. While greater prominence of the Warmth theme was predictive of greater sexual functioning for both non-identifiers and those with no NSEs, this was not true for identifiers. Instead, the NSE theme was significantly predictive of lower sexual functioning in identifiers. The results suggest that NSE identification may result in greater internalization of the NSE into one's sexual self-schema and, in turn, predict decrements in sexual functioning. The results are discussed in relation to identification interpretation and clinical intervention.

Rape myth acceptance and rape acknowledgment: The mediating role of sexual refusal assertiveness

Unacknowledged rape, defined as when an individual experiences an event that meets a legal or empirical definition of rape but the individual does not label it as such, is prevalent. Research examining predictors of rape acknowledgment is needed. Sexual assertiveness may be an important variable to consider, as an individual's typical behavior during sexual situations may influence rape acknowledgment. To assess the indirect effect of rape myth acceptance on rape acknowledgment through sexual refusal assertiveness, an online survey of 181 female rape survivors was conducted. The indirect effects of two types of rape myths (He didn't mean to and Rape is a deviant event) were significant and positive. Specifically, acceptance of these two rape myths was negatively related to sexual refusal assertiveness, which was negatively associated with likelihood of rape acknowledgment. The results of this study indicate that sexual refusal assertiveness is associated with lower likelihood of rape acknowledgment among rape survivors. As a result, it appears that, under certain circumstances, women high in rape myth acceptance may be more likely to acknowledge rape when it results in decreased sexual refusal assertiveness.

If It Wasn't Rape, Was It Sexual Assault? Comparing Rape and Sexual Assault Acknowledgment in College Women Who Have Experienced Rape

The present study investigated (a) comparisons in rates of rape and sexual assault acknowledgment and (b) a comprehensive multivariate multinomial logistic model predicting rape and sexual assault acknowledgment in a sample of 174 college women who had experienced rape. Significantly more women acknowledged having experienced sexual assault than rape. Greater perceived perpetrator force was associated with increased likelihood of rape and sexual assault acknowledgment. Increased age and greater perceived emotional impact were associated with increased odds of rape acknowledgment. Implications for policy, education, and practice within university settings are discussed.

Unacknowledged Rape and Re-Victimization Risk

The majority of college women who experience rape do not conceptualize their experience as a victimization, that is, they are unacknowledged victims. There is some initial evidence that unacknowledged victims are at elevated re-victimization risk relative to acknowledged victims. In the current study, we sought to identify mediators of the association between acknowledgment of rape and re-victimization in a sample of 319 college rape victims; 187 (58.6%) participants completed a 2-month follow-up study. We examined regular drinking, number of sexual partners, and continuing a relationship with the assailant as potential mediators of the relation between acknowledgment and re-victimization. At follow-up, unacknowledged victims reported higher rates of new attempted (16.2%) and completed rape (11.9%), relative to acknowledged victims (attempted: 7.9%; completed: 3.0%). Number of sexual partners mediated the relation between acknowledgment and attempted rape. Both number of partners and regular drinking mediated the relation between acknowledgment and completed rape. Thus, not acknowledging rape may be associated with re-victimization in part because unacknowledged victims may be more likely to engage in behaviors that increase vulnerability. We believe there is a need for longitudinal, theoretically grounded research examining risky behaviors, victimization, and acknowledgment status over time to delineate the relations among these variables. Online slides for instructors who want to use this article for teaching are available on PWQ' s website at http://journals.sagepub.com/page/pwq/suppl/index

Evaluating the One-in-Five Statistic: Women's Risk of Sexual Assault While in College

In 2014, U.S. president Barack Obama announced a White House Task Force to Protect Students From Sexual Assault, noting that "1 in 5 women on college campuses has been sexually assaulted during their time there." Since then, this one-in-five statistic has permeated public discourse. It is frequently reported, but some commentators have criticized it as exaggerated. Here, we address the question, "What percentage of women are sexually assaulted while in college?" After discussing definitions of sexual assault, we systematically review available data, focusing on studies that used large, representative samples of female undergraduates and multiple behaviorally specific questions. We conclude that one in five is a reasonably accurate average across women and campuses. We also review studies that are inappropriately cited as either supporting or debunking the one-in-five statistic; we explain why they do not adequately address this question. We identify and evaluate several assumptions implicit in the public discourse (e.g., the assumption that college students are at greater risk than nonstudents). Given the empirical support for the one-in-five statistic, we suggest that the controversy occurs because of misunderstandings about studies' methods and results and because this topic has implications for gender relations, power, and sexuality; this controversy is ultimately about values.

A Qualitative Analysis of the Effects of Victimization History and Sexual Attitudes on Women’s Hypothetical Sexual Assault Scripts

This study examined qualitatively the effects of a sexual victimization history and sexual attitudes on 247 undergraduate women’s written accounts of a hypothetical sexual assault. More severe victimization history was associated with script characteristics of greater alcohol use, knowing the man longer, and the context of a party. Greater endorsement of positive attitudes toward casual sex was related to script characteristics of greater alcohol use, acquiescing to the man, and not knowing the man as long. Finally, a more recent sexual assault was associated with script characteristics of having just met the man, the context of a party or date, and acquiescing to the man.

Meta-Analysis of the Prevalence of Unacknowledged Rape

Many sexual violence survivors do not label their experiences as rape but instead use more benign labels, such as "bad sex" or "miscommunication." A meta-analysis was conducted to estimate the mean prevalence of unacknowledged rape and to inform our understanding of methodological factors that influence the detection of this phenomenon. Studies were identified using PsycINFO, PubMED, and PILOTS and were required to report the percentage of unacknowledged rape that had occurred since the age of 14 among female survivors. Moderator variables included mean participant age, recruitment source, rape definition, and unacknowledged rape definition. Twenty-eight studies (30 independent samples) containing 5,917 female rape survivors met the inclusion criteria. Based on a random effects model, the overall weighted mean percentage of unacknowledged rape was 60.4% (95% confidence interval [55.0%, 65.6%]). There was a large amount of heterogeneity, Q(29) = 445.11, p < .001, and inconsistency (I(2) = 93.5%) among included studies. The prevalence was significantly higher among college student participants compared to noncollege participants. The findings supported that over half of all female rape survivors do not acknowledge that they have been raped. The results suggest that screening tools should use behaviorally descriptive items about sexual contact, rather than using terms such as "rape."

Labeling Sexual Victimization Experiences: The Role of Sexism, Rape Myth Acceptance, and Tolerance for Sexual Harassment

This study investigated whether attitudinal variables, such as benevolent and hostile sexism toward men and women, female rape myth acceptance, and tolerance of sexual harassment are related to women labeling their sexual assault experiences as rape. In a sample of 276 female college students, 71 (25.7%) reported at least one experience that met the operational definition of rape, although only 46.5% of those women labeled the experience "rape." Benevolent sexism, tolerance of sexual harassment, and rape myth acceptance, but not hostile sexism, significantly predicted labeling of previous sexual assault experiences by the victims. Specifically, those with more benevolent sexist attitudes toward both men and women, greater rape myth acceptance, and more tolerant attitudes of sexual harassment were less likely to label their past sexual assault experience as rape. The results are discussed for their clinical and theoretical implications.

A Listening Guide Analysis of Women’s Experiences of Unacknowledged Rape

In the empirical literature, unacknowledged rape has been well documented. But due to ethical and methodological challenges, very few researchers have employed qualitative methods to examine unacknowledged rape. Through pre-screening and careful articulation of interview questions, these barriers were overcome, and 10 undergraduate women from the University of Windsor were interviewed about their experiences of unlabeled sexual assault. I used the Listening Guide to inform both the methodology and the data analysis. I identified three voices pertaining to rape acknowledgment. These voices were labeled the not knowing voice, the knowing voice, and the ambivalent voice, and I illustrate that rape acknowledgment is not dichotomous and that women can both simultaneously recognize and resist the labels of rape and sexual assault. This article addresses the need for a multidimensional understanding of rape acknowledgment. I discuss the implications the findings have for how we understand and respond to women, as they negotiate the labeling of coercive sexual experiences. Online slides for instructors who want to use this article for teaching are available to PWQ subscribers on PWQ's website at http://pwq.sagepub.com/supplemental

Predicting Rape Victim Empathy Based on Rape Victimization and Acknowledgment Labeling

Two studies examined rape victim empathy based on personal rape victimization and acknowledgment labeling. Female undergraduates (Study 1, n = 267; Study 2, n = 381) from a Northeast U.S. midsize public university completed the Rape-Victim Empathy Scale and Sexual Experiences Survey. As predicted, both studies found that acknowledged "rape" victims reported greater empathy than unacknowledged victims and nonvictims. Unexpectedly, these latter two groups did not differ. Study 1 also found that acknowledged "rape" victims reported greater empathy than victims who acknowledged being "sexually victimized." Findings suggest that being raped and acknowledging "rape" together may facilitate rape victim empathy.

Beyond the Dyad

Sexual assault is prevalent in the United States, particularly among college women. Prevention programs are implemented to combat assault, yet rates have not changed for five decades. A course designed to deconstruct contextualized factors contributing to assault was developed as an alternative prevention initiative. The current study assessed the effectiveness of the course compared with a traditional program via in-depth interviews with students. Findings indicated that students in the course were more likely to acknowledge underlying determinants of sexual assault and articulate how such behaviors could lead to assault. The course could be an effective approach to sexual assault prevention education.

Managed Not Missing

Our article describes findings from a project exploring sexual agency and desire among young women, focusing on the negotiation of sexuality within relationship contexts. Adopting a social constructionist framework, we used discourse analysis to examine semi-structured, audio-taped interviews with 39 Canadian young women (aged 18–26). Three related interpretive repertoires were identified, namely, (a) Sex as Relationship Hygiene (i.e., beneficial to the health of one’s relationship), (b) Sex as Exercise-esque (i.e., part of a wellness regime), and (c) Sex as Economy Exchange (i.e., a commodifiable practice within the heterosexual marketplace). Desire was not absent from participants’ accounts, however, it was channeled into specific forms of sexual expression and mediated by multiple and competing cultural imperatives. The interpretive repertoires provided spaces for agentic sex within which subjective sexual desire was not the primary motive but rather was subordinate to a rhetoric of self- and relationship improvement as a key register of sexuality. We discuss these findings in the context of postfeminist directives about sexual desirability and proficiency that young women must traverse as they develop ideas about successful female sexuality within heterosexual relationships.

The front lines of the “back door”: Navigating (dis)engagement, coercion, and pleasure in women’s anal sex experiences

Despite the frequent depiction of heterosexual anal sex in pornography, and growing indications that heterosexual couples engage in anal sex, almost no research has examined women’s subjective experiences with receptive anal sex with men. This study draws upon qualitative interviews with 20 American women (mean age = 34, SD = 13.35) from diverse ages and backgrounds to illuminate five themes in women’s narratives about receptive anal sex: (1) initial resistance followed by submission; (2) initial interest followed by withdrawal from subsequent anal sex experiences; (3) violence and coercion surrounding anal sex; (4) social norming (e.g. men’s male friends normalizing heterosexual anal sex; seeing anal sex as normative after watching pornography); and (5) pleasurable experiences with anal eroticism. Implications for the re-evaluation of consent, imagining a continuum of sexualized violence, heteronormative assumptions about access to and power over women, silences surrounding non-penetrative anal eroticism, and women’s (dis)engagement with anal sex are explored.

Health and sexual outcomes of women who have experienced forced or coercive sex

Previous research has linked women's history of experiencing sexual assault with negative health outcomes; however, much of this research is over a decade old. Furthermore, little research has examined the relationship between sexual assault and women's sexuality. In the current study the authors aimed to assess the relation of experiencing sexual assault to women's health and sexuality and the relation of repeat victimization by multiple different perpetrators to such outcomes. Data were collected from a convenience sample of 2,915 women using an online questionnaire. Nearly half (n = 1,394, 47.8%) indicated having experienced forced or coercive sex. Women who had experienced forced or coercive sex were more likely to report negative health outcomes (Adj. OR = 1.56; 95% CI: 1.35-1.82, p < .001) and some negative sexual outcomes compared to women without a history of forced or coercive sex. Similarly, women who experienced repeat victimizations by multiple different perpetrators were even more likely to report negative health outcomes (Adj. OR = 1.43; 95% CI: 1.28-1.59, p < .001) as well as some negative sexual outcomes. Healthcare providers should be aware of the relation of sexual assault to health and sexuality and continue to address health and sexuality issues associated with sexual assault for their patients.