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Ratan R, Boumis J, McNeill G, Desrochers A, Taskas S, Jang D, Makki T. Examining the Proteus effect on misogynistic behavior induced by a sports mascot avatar in virtual reality. Sci Rep 2024; 14:19659. [PMID: 39179742 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-024-70450-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/24/2023] [Accepted: 08/16/2024] [Indexed: 08/26/2024] Open
Abstract
The Proteus effect is a phenomenon found in over 60 studies where people tend to conform behaviorally to their avatars' identity characteristics, especially in virtual reality. This study extends research on the Proteus effect to consider organization-representing avatars and misogynistic behavioral outcomes. Male participants (N = 141) in a lab experiment embodied a set of pretested avatars which varied in level of association with a university mascot (i.e., color and body type) in a bespoke virtual reality simulation designed to elicit misogynistic behavior. Namely, participants were directed to place a hand on virtual agents' body parts, including the buttocks (i.e., a transgressive misogynistic act). Time delay in complying with directions to touch the agents' buttocks served as an implicit measure of resistance to this misogynistic behavior. Results suggest that within moderately masculine body-size avatar users, those who embodied a university-color-associated avatar exhibited more misogynistic behaviors (i.e., faster buttocks-touching). Unexpectedly, this effect of avatar color was not apparent within the hypermasculine body-size avatars, and within the university-associated color condition, hypermasculine body-type was associated with less misogynistic behavior. These findings suggest that organization-representing avatars may induce behavioral conformity to implicit attitudes associated with the organization, such as misogyny.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | | | | | | | - Taj Makki
- Michigan State University, East Lansing, USA
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2
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Pecini C, Ruzzante D, Valtorta RR, Crapolicchio E, Cocco VM, Andrighetto L, Di Bernardo GA. Why Might Women Justify Dating Violence? The Role of Men's Sexual Objectification of Their Romantic Partners Within Heterosexual Relationships. JOURNAL OF INTERPERSONAL VIOLENCE 2023; 38:10664-10685. [PMID: 37227007 DOI: 10.1177/08862605231175515] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/26/2023]
Abstract
Men's partner-sexual objectification has been linked to increased self-objectification and diminished well-being in women. Some recent findings have also demonstrated that men's partner-sexual objectification is related to increased violence in the relationship. However, mechanisms driving this association remain unexplored. In the present research, we collected data on women and men involved in heterosexual romantic relationships and investigated the associations between men's partner-sexual objectification, women's self-objectification, and both partners' attitudes toward dating violence. Study 1 (N = 171 heterosexual couples) provided first evidence for the link between men's partner-sexual objectification and their attitudes toward dating violence. Furthermore, men's attitudes toward dating violence mediated the relationship between sexual objectification of their partners and women's attitudes toward dating violence. These results were replicated in Study 2 (N = 235 heterosexual couples). Findings of this study also revealed that, along with men's attitudes toward dating violence, women's self-objectification acted as a mediating mechanism linking experiences of being sexually objectified by the romantic partner and attitudes toward dating violence in women. Implications of our findings for the issue of dating violence are discussed.
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3
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Santoniccolo F, Trombetta T, Paradiso MN, Rollè L. Gender and Media Representations: A Review of the Literature on Gender Stereotypes, Objectification and Sexualization. INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH AND PUBLIC HEALTH 2023; 20:ijerph20105770. [PMID: 37239498 DOI: 10.3390/ijerph20105770] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/28/2023] [Revised: 04/25/2023] [Accepted: 05/06/2023] [Indexed: 05/28/2023]
Abstract
Media representations play an important role in producing sociocultural pressures. Despite social and legal progress in civil rights, restrictive gender-based representations appear to be still very pervasive in some contexts. The article explores scientific research on the relationship between media representations and gender stereotypes, objectification and sexualization, focusing on their presence in the cultural context. Results show how stereotyping, objectifying and sexualizing representations appear to be still very common across a number of contexts. Exposure to stereotyping representations appears to strengthen beliefs in gender stereotypes and endorsement of gender role norms, as well as fostering sexism, harassment and violence in men and stifling career-related ambitions in women. Exposure to objectifying and sexualizing representations appears to be associated with the internalization of cultural ideals of appearance, endorsement of sexist attitudes and tolerance of abuse and body shame. In turn, factors associated with exposure to these representations have been linked to detrimental effects on physical and psychological well-being, such as eating disorder symptomatology, increased body surveillance and poorer body image quality of life. However, specificities in the pathways from exposure to detrimental effects on well-being are involved for certain populations that warrant further research.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Tommaso Trombetta
- Department of Psychology, University of Turin, Via Verdi 10, 10124 Turin, Italy
| | | | - Luca Rollè
- Department of Psychology, University of Turin, Via Verdi 10, 10124 Turin, Italy
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4
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Biefeld SD, Brown CS. Fat, sexy, and human? Perceptions of plus-size sexualized women and dehumanization. Body Image 2022; 42:84-97. [PMID: 35671637 DOI: 10.1016/j.bodyim.2022.05.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/27/2021] [Revised: 04/28/2022] [Accepted: 05/10/2022] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
Abstract
Past research suggests that sexualized women are dehumanized and viewing sexualized images negatively impacts viewers' body image; however, plus-size women are mostly absent from this research. The current studies investigate how sexualization impacts dehumanization of plus-size women and participants' body image. In Study 1 (N = 277, Mage = 19.52, SD =1.77) men and women viewed images of plus-size and thin sexualized and non-sexualized women and rated the women on traits linked to dehumanization. Results indicated that sexualized thin targets were perceived as less human than plus-size sexualized and non-sexualized targets. Plus-size sexualized targets were also perceived as less human than plus-size non-sexualized targets. In Study 2 (N = 500, Mage = 18.98, SD = 1.51) we investigated the impact of viewing sexualized images on participants' feelings about their own body. Results indicated that sexualization, but not body size, impacted women's objectified body consciousness. Men's body esteem was impacted by the body size of the image. Perceived race of the image also impacted feelings of body control for both men and women. Taken together these results highlight that sexualization, at any body size, impacts women's views about themselves and sexualized women, at any body size, are dehumanized.
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5
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Women and #MeToo in Italy: Internalized sexualization is associated with tolerance of sexual harassment and negative views of the #MeToo movement. CURRENT PSYCHOLOGY 2021. [DOI: 10.1007/s12144-021-01350-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
Abstract
AbstractAs a consequence of exposure to sexualized messages, girls and women may internalize the belief that sexual attractiveness to men is an important aspect of their identity. Whereas research on internalized sexualization has mainly focused on its consequences for girls’ well-being and academic outcomes, the present study (N = 222, women, aged 20 to 29) examined whether internalized sexualization is related to sexist attitudes and tolerance of sexual harassment among young women. It also analyzed internalized sexualization’ links to women’s views of notorious sexual abuse allegations in the so-called Weinstein scandal and attitudes towards the #MeToo movement, a campaign aimed at combatting sexual harassment and sexual assault. The study was conducted in Italy, a context characterized by pervasive sexualized messages and diffuse criticism against the #MeToo movement. The findings showed that internalized sexualization was associated with stronger endorsement of sexist attitudes and higher acceptance of sexual harassment myths, which worked as sequential mediators of skepticism towards sexual abuse allegations in the Weinstein scandals. Endorsement of sexist attitudes mediated the relation between internalized sexualization and negative attitudes towards the #MeToo movement. This study extends the knowledge on the correlates of sexualization, suggesting that women’s internalization of the belief that they should be sexually attractive to men might contribute to reinforce ideologies and attitudes that perpetrate women’s mistreatment while diminishing support for social activism on women’s behalf.
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6
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Fox J, Vendemia MA, Smith MA, Brehm NR. Effects of taking selfies on women's self-objectification, mood, self-esteem, and social aggression toward female peers. Body Image 2021; 36:193-200. [PMID: 33360476 DOI: 10.1016/j.bodyim.2020.11.011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/01/2020] [Revised: 11/26/2020] [Accepted: 11/28/2020] [Indexed: 12/22/2022]
Abstract
This study investigated the effects of taking photos (of the self or objects) on women. Objectification theory states that women are subjected to societal pressure to focus on their physical appearance. The emergence of social media as a communication channel has further reinforced the emphasis on women's appearance, beauty ideals, and body image. On social media, selfies serve as a self-presentation of one's appearance to an online audience. In this 2 × 2 experiment, women (N = 120, Mage = 19.87) took pictures of themselves (i.e., selfies) or objects. They were told beforehand that these pictures would be kept private or that they would be posted online on social media. After taking pictures, we assessed women's self-objectification, mood, and self-esteem. Women then engaged in a photo tagging task in which they selected hashtags for selfies of other women. Selfie takers expressed higher self-objectification, more negative mood, and diminished self-esteem compared to those taking pictures of objects. Selfie takers also demonstrated comparatively less social aggression, using fewer derogatory tags on other women's pictures. Although taking selfies may negatively affect producers, there may be benefits for online social interaction with peers.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jesse Fox
- The Ohio State University, United States.
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7
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Beck V, Rose C. Is Sexual Objectification and Victimization of Females in Video Games Associated With Victim Blaming or Victim Empathy? JOURNAL OF INTERPERSONAL VIOLENCE 2021; 36:NP3196-NP3221. [PMID: 29683078 DOI: 10.1177/0886260518770187] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/08/2023]
Abstract
The goal of this study was to investigate whether the sexual objectification and virtual violence against females in video games increases negative attitudes toward females, when addressing a variety of noted methodological issues. Study participants were randomly assigned to a control group, where participants played Madden NFL 12, or an experimental group, where participants played Grand Theft Auto. In the experimental group, participants played the game with a confederate, who exposed participants to sexual objectification and violence against females. Study results indicated that both the experimental and control groups had equivalently low levels of rape myth acceptance prior to game play. Immediately after game play, there still was no statistically significant difference in rape myth acceptance between groups; however, there was a decrease in rape myth acceptance for the experimental group. The decrease in rape myth acceptance continued and magnified for the experimental group, over time, to the point of creating a statistically significant difference between the two groups for the follow-up measure at the end of the study.
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8
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Sexy, Thin, and White: The Intersection of Sexualization, Body Type, and Race on Stereotypes about Women. SEX ROLES 2021. [DOI: 10.1007/s11199-020-01221-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/30/2022]
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9
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Skowronski M, Busching R, Krahé B. The effects of sexualized video game characters and character personalization on women's self-objectification and body satisfaction. JOURNAL OF EXPERIMENTAL SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY 2021. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jesp.2020.104051] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
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10
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Abstract
AbstractMedia that sexually objectify women by portraying them in ways that emphasize physical beauty and sexual readiness as well as reduce them to decorative and sexual objects have been traditionally identified by scholars as a powerful cultural risk factor encouraging sexual harassment and sexual violence. In the present article we review the existing empirical evidence linking sexually objectifying media and sexual harassment of women to the overarching and integrative Media-Induced Sexual Harassment framework. This framework offers a coherent scheme for explaining the effects of sexually objectifying media on three target groups directly involved in sexual harassment—perpetrators, victims, and bystanders—and it postulates three cognitive and emotional mechanisms through which sexually objectifying media lead to sexual harassment: dehumanization, disruption of emphatic resonance, and a shift in gender norms. The evidence reviewed on the basis of the Media-Induced Sexual Harassment framework shows that sexually objectifying media converge in normalizing harassing behaviors and can be a causal risk factor for increasing engagement in sexual harassment, heightening victims’ acceptance of sexual harassment and discouraging bystander intervention. We discuss implications of these arguments for effectively preventing negative effects of exposure to sexually objectifying media and for education programs aimed at critical media-consumption.
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11
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Predicting Adolescents’ Self-Objectification from Sexualized Video Game and Instagram Use: A Longitudinal Study. SEX ROLES 2020. [DOI: 10.1007/s11199-020-01187-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/23/2022]
Abstract
AbstractA growing body of research has demonstrated negative effects of sexualization in the media on adolescents’ body image, but longitudinal studies and research including interactive and social media are scarce. The current study explored the longitudinal associations of adolescents’ use of sexualized video games (SVG) and sexualized Instagram images (SII) with body image concerns. Specifically, our study examined relations between adolescents’ SVG and SII use and appearance comparisons, thin- and muscular-ideal internalization, valuing appearance over competence, and body surveillance. A sample of 660 German adolescents (327 female, 333 male; Mage = 15.09 years) participated in two waves with an interval of 6 months. A structural equation model showed that SVG and SII use at Time 1 predicted body surveillance indirectly via valuing appearance over competence at Time 2. Furthermore, SVG and SII use indirectly predicted both thin- and muscular-ideal internalization through appearance comparisons at Time 1. In turn, thin-ideal internalization at Time 1 predicted body surveillance indirectly via valuing appearance over competence at Time 2. The results indicate that sexualization in video games and on Instagram can play an important role in increasing body image concerns among adolescents. We discuss the findings with respect to objectification theory and the predictive value of including appearance comparisons in models explaining the relation between sexualized media and self-objectification.
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12
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Esfahani MS, Reynolds N, Ashleigh M. Mindful and Mindless Anthropomorphism: How to Facilitate Consumer Comprehension Towards New Products. INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF INNOVATION AND TECHNOLOGY MANAGEMENT 2020. [DOI: 10.1142/s0219877020500169] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
Abstract
Individual’s perception of anthropomorphic platforms in promotion of really new products or novel innovations has not been examined fully. There are contradictions in the academic literature on how various presentations of social cues are perceived by audience mindlessly or mindfully. Perceived mindful and mindless anthropomorphism are explored in this study in order to understand its effect on individuals’ attitude, purchase intention and comprehension of new products. A single factor between-subject design using two innovative products and websites with four levels of social cues (voice, language, interactivity and social role) was used. Five hundred participants took part in the main experiment. Participants were randomly assigned to each experimental group. The analysis indicated that a human-like avatar is preferred by individuals over static avatar and perceived higher mindlessly. Interactive content didn’t improve individuals’ perceived mindless anthropomorphism. There was no significant increase in individuals’ mindful anthropomorphism in any condition. The study indicated perceived mindless anthropomorphism results into better comprehension, attitude and purchase intention towards really new products.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mona Seyed Esfahani
- Marketing Communication, Weymouth House W427, Faculty of Media and Communication, Bournemouth University, Fern Barrow, Poole, BH12 5BB, UK
| | - Nina Reynolds
- Faculty of Business – School of Management, Operations and Marketing, University of Wollongong, Northfields Ave, Wollongong, Australia, NSW 2522, Australia
| | - Melanie Ashleigh
- Southampton Business School, University of Southampton, Highfield, Southampton SO17 1BJ, UK
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13
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Aubrey JS, Speno AG, Gamble H. Appearance Framing versus Health Framing of Health Advice: Assessing the Effects of a YouTube Channel for Adolescent Girls. HEALTH COMMUNICATION 2020; 35:384-394. [PMID: 30648450 DOI: 10.1080/10410236.2018.1564955] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/09/2023]
Abstract
The present experimental study tested the effects of appearance framing of health advice on adolescent girls' state self-objectification, appearance anxiety, and preference for appearance-enhancing products. The stimuli consisted of informative YouTube-style videos about doing yoga, drinking water, or using sunscreen, and these videos were either appearance-framed (experimental condition) or health-framed (control condition). In total, 154 adolescent girls (Mage = 15.67, SD = 1.07) participated in the experiment. The effect of appearance-framed videos on state self-objectification scores was moderated by age, such that the effect of viewing the appearance-framed videos positively predicted state self-objectification among the younger adolescents. In addition, self-objectification mediated the effect of condition on appearance anxiety and on their appearance-enhancing product preferences, again with the predicted effects supported for the younger adolescents in the sample.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | - Hilary Gamble
- Department of Communication and Theatre, Auburn University-Montgomery
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14
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Naidoo R, Coleman K, Guyo C. Exploring gender discursive struggles about social inclusion in an online gaming community. INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY & PEOPLE 2019. [DOI: 10.1108/itp-04-2019-0163] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
Purpose
The purpose of this paper is to adopt a critical relational dialectics framework to identify and explore gender discursive struggles about social inclusion observed in an online gaming community, in South Africa.
Design/methodology/approach
The paper uses a technique called contrapuntal analysis to identify and explore competing discourses in over 200 messages on gender struggles about social inclusion posted in the local community’s gamer discussion board, based on seven threads initiated by women gamer activists.
Findings
The findings show how four interrelated gender discursive struggles about social inclusion and social exclusion animated the meanings of online gamer relations: dominance vs equality, stereotyping vs diversity, competitiveness vs cooperativeness and privilege vs empowerment.
Practical implications
Game designers should reinforce more accurate and positive stereotypes to cater for the rapidly growing female gamer segment joining the online gaming market and to develop a less chauvinistic and more diversely representative online gaming community. Enlightened gamers should exercise greater solidarity in fighting for gender equality in online gaming communities.
Originality/value
The critical relational dialectics analysis adopted in this study offers a promising avenue to understand and critique the discursive struggles that arise when online gamers from the different gender groups relate. The findings highlight the unequal discursive power and privilege of many white male gamers when discussing social inclusion. Advancing our understanding of these discursive struggles creates the possibilities for improving social inclusion in online gaming communities.
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Speno AG, Aubrey JS. Adolescent Sexting: The Roles of Self-Objectification and Internalization of Media Ideals. PSYCHOLOGY OF WOMEN QUARTERLY 2018. [DOI: 10.1177/0361684318809383] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/19/2022]
Abstract
We examined adolescent sexting using objectification theory as a framework. We hypothesized that sexting is a manifestation of trait self-objectification and the internalization of gender-specific media ideals about attractiveness. We conducted a cross-sectional survey of 201 Midwestern adolescents, 14–17 years old. We tested a three-stage path model, which differed for female and male adolescents. For female adolescents, self-objectification was positively associated with favorable attitudes about sexting, which further predicted two types of intentions to engage in sexting: sexting when there is trust in the sexting partner (security-based intentions) and sexting that is spurred by situational cues. Although there was a serial mediation effect of self-objectification on sexting behaviors through sexting attitudes and total sexting intentions, only the indirect effect of sexting attitudes on behaviors through security-based intentions was individually significant. For male adolescents, internalization of media ideals was positively associated with sexting attitudes, which further predicted the two types of sexting intentions. Similar to female adolescents, there was a serial mediation effect of internalization of media ideals on sexting behaviors through sexting attitudes and total sexting intentions; however, only security-based sexting intentions predicted sexting behaviors. Our results have implications regarding how to conceptualize adolescent sexting and how researchers, parents, and educators may help teenage youth to establish healthy sexting attitudes and behaviors. Additional online materials for this article are available to PWQ subscribers on PWQ’s website at http://journals.sagepub.com/doi/suppl/10.1177/0361684318809383
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Affiliation(s)
- Ashton Gerding Speno
- Department of Mass Communications, Southern Illinois University Edwardsville, Edwardsville, IL, USA
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16
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Bell BT, Cassarly JA, Dunbar L. Selfie-Objectification: Self-Objectification and Positive Feedback ("Likes") are Associated with Frequency of Posting Sexually Objectifying Self-Images on Social Media. Body Image 2018; 26:83-89. [PMID: 30005293 DOI: 10.1016/j.bodyim.2018.06.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 62] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/30/2017] [Revised: 06/27/2018] [Accepted: 06/27/2018] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
Abstract
The present study is the first to examine the extent to which young adult women post objectifying self-images on social media, and whether the frequency of posting such content can be predicted by self-objectification and positive feedback (likes). Eighty-six young adult women from the UK (Age M = 19.88; SD = 1.34, Range = 18-24) completed self-report measures of self-objectification and social media use. The 20 most recent images they had posted on their personal Instagram accounts were downloaded (Image N = 1720) and content analysed for self-objectifying content. The analysis found that 29.77% of participants' Instagram images were objectified, though there were individual differences. Higher frequency of posting objectified self-images was associated with trait self-objectification and receiving more likes on this type of self-image, relative to non-objectified self-images. The implications of the novel findings for objectification theory are discussed within.
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Affiliation(s)
- Beth T Bell
- School of Psychological and Social Sciences, York St. John University, York, YO31 7EX, United Kingdom
| | - Jennifer A Cassarly
- School of Social Sciences, Humanities and Law, Teesside University, Middlesbrough, TS1 3BA, United Kingdom
| | - Lucy Dunbar
- School of Psychological and Social Sciences, York St. John University, York, YO31 7EX, United Kingdom
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Gestos M, Smith-Merry J, Campbell A. Representation of Women in Video Games: A Systematic Review of Literature in Consideration of Adult Female Wellbeing. CYBERPSYCHOLOGY BEHAVIOR AND SOCIAL NETWORKING 2018; 21:535-541. [PMID: 30132695 DOI: 10.1089/cyber.2017.0376] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/13/2022]
Abstract
This study aims to provide a comprehensive systematic review of the literature relating to the representation of women within video games in consideration of adult female wellbeing. The research question of the study assessed whether the representation of women in video games leads to female self-objectification and negative body image in adult women. The Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses (PRISMA) review method was used; comprising a thorough keyword database search, followed by literature screening and data extraction. Adult women were the focus of the study, with video games as the study exposure. Only 2 of the 22 studies directly assessed female wellbeing in relation to video game play. Results showed that women do report self-objectification and low levels of self-efficacy, as a result of exposure to objectified female content within video games, compared with participants exposed to nonobjectified content. Male and female belief in real-life female competence was jeopardized after exposure to objectified content of women within video games. Results demonstrated that female characters within video games are unevenly represented compared with male characters, with female characters mostly shown as subordinate to the male hero of the game, objectified, and hypersexualized with disproportionate body parts. The review also uncovered the propensity for men exposed to objectified and sexualized female characters within video games to hold sexist attitudes toward women in a real-life setting, and being more lenient to accept cultural rape myths.
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Affiliation(s)
- Meghan Gestos
- Faculty of Health Sciences, The University of Sydney , Camperdown, Australia
| | | | - Andrew Campbell
- Faculty of Health Sciences, The University of Sydney , Camperdown, Australia
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18
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Kahalon R, Shnabel N, Becker JC. Experimental Studies on State Self-Objectification: A Review and an Integrative Process Model. Front Psychol 2018; 9:1268. [PMID: 30150946 PMCID: PMC6099106 DOI: 10.3389/fpsyg.2018.01268] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/18/2017] [Accepted: 07/02/2018] [Indexed: 11/25/2022] Open
Abstract
This paper provides an organizing framework for the experimental research on the effects of state self-objectification on women. We explain why this body of work, which had grown rapidly in the last 20 years, departs from the original formulation of objectification theory (Fredrickson and Roberts, 1997). We compare the different operationalizations of state self-objectification and examine how they map onto its theoretical definition, concluding that the operationalizations have focused mostly on one component of this construct (concerns about one's physical appearance) while neglecting others (adopting a third-person perspective and treating oneself as a dehumanized object). We review the main findings of studies that experimentally induced state self-objectification and examined its affective, motivational, behavioral, cognitive, and physiological outcomes. We note that three core outcomes of this state as specified by objectification theory (safety anxiety, reduced flow experiences, and awareness of internal body states) have hardly been examined so far. Most importantly, we introduce an integrative process model, suggesting that the reported effects are triggered by four different mechanisms: appearance monitoring, experience of discrepancy from appearance standards, stereotype threat, and activation of the "sex object" schema. We propose strategies for distinguishing between these mechanisms and explain the theoretical and practical importance of doing so.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rotem Kahalon
- Tel-Aviv University, The School of Psychological Science, Tel-Aviv, Israel
| | - Nurit Shnabel
- Tel-Aviv University, The School of Psychological Science, Tel-Aviv, Israel
| | - Julia C. Becker
- School of Human Science, Institute of Psychology, Osnabrück University, Osnabrück, Germany
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19
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Abstract
Objectification theorists suggest that exposure to sexualizing media increases self-objectification among individuals. Correlational and experimental research examining this relation has received growing attention. The aim of this meta-analysis was to investigate the influence of sexualizing media use on self-objectification among women and men. For this purpose, we analyzed 54 papers yielding 50 independent studies and 261 effect sizes. The data revealed a positive, moderate effect of sexualizing media on self-objectification (r = .19). The effect was significant and robust, 95% CI [.15, .23], p < .0001. We identified a conditional effect of media type, suggesting that the use of video games and/or online media led to stronger self-objectification effects when compared to television use. Other sample characteristics or study characteristics did not moderate the overall effect. Thus, our findings highlight the importance of sexualizing media exposure on women’s and men’s objectified self-concept. We discuss future research directions and implications for practice. We hope that the article will stimulate researchers in their future work to address the research gaps outlined here. Moreover, we hope that the findings will encourage practitioners and parents to reflect on the role of the use of sexualizing media in the development of individuals’ self-objectification. Additional online materials for this article are available on PWQ’s website at http://journals.sagepub.com/doi/suppl10.1177/0361684317743019
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Affiliation(s)
- Kathrin Karsay
- Department of Communication, University of Vienna, Vienna, Austria
| | - Johannes Knoll
- Department of Communication, University of Vienna, Vienna, Austria
| | - Jörg Matthes
- Department of Communication, University of Vienna, Vienna, Austria
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Ferguson CJ, Donnellan MB. The Association between Sexist Games and Diminished Empathy Remains Tenuous: Lessons from Gabbiadini et al. (2017) and Gabbiadini et al. (2016) Regarding Sensationalism and Accuracy in Media Research. J Youth Adolesc 2017; 46:2467-2474. [PMID: 29090373 DOI: 10.1007/s10964-017-0768-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/01/2017] [Accepted: 09/26/2017] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Christopher J Ferguson
- Department of Psychology, Stetson University, 421 N. Woodland Blvd., DeLand, FL, 32729, USA.
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Gabbiadini A, Bushman BJ, Riva P, Andrighetto L, Volpato C. Grand Theft Auto is a "Sandbox" Game, but There are Weapons, Criminals, and Prostitutes in the Sandbox: Response to Ferguson and Donnellan (2017). J Youth Adolesc 2017; 46:2460-2466. [PMID: 28836184 DOI: 10.1007/s10964-017-0731-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/25/2017] [Accepted: 07/27/2017] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
In this issue, (Ferguson, C. J., & Donnellan, B. D., Journal of Youth and and Adolescence, published online 21 June 2017) criticize one of our studies (Gabbiadini, A., Riva, P., Andrighetto, L., Volpato, C., & Bushman, B. J., PLoS ONE, 11: 1-14, 2016) that found violent sexist video games can reduce empathy for female violence victims in male players who identify with violent male game characters, and do so by increasing masculine beliefs. Their main criticism is a "straw person" argument built on a claim that we never made (i.e., a direct effect of sexist-violent video games on empathy). They also made several other criticisms of our article. We appreciate the opportunity to respond to their criticisms in this article. We also point out some flaws in their reanalysis. Despite their criticisms, the core contributions of our original article remain intact.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | - Paolo Riva
- University of Milano-Bicocca, Milan, Italy
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Bègue L, Sarda E, Gentile DA, Bry C, Roché S. Video Games Exposure and Sexism in a Representative Sample of Adolescents. Front Psychol 2017; 8:466. [PMID: 28408891 PMCID: PMC5374198 DOI: 10.3389/fpsyg.2017.00466] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/28/2016] [Accepted: 03/13/2017] [Indexed: 12/03/2022] Open
Abstract
Research has indicated that many video games are saturated with stereotypes of women and that these contents may cultivate sexism. The purpose of this study was to assess the relationship between video game exposure and sexism for the first time in a large and representative sample. Our aim was also to measure the strength of this association when two other significant and well-studied sources of sexism, television exposure and religiosity, were also included in a multivariate model. A representative sample of 13520 French youth aged 11–19 years completed a survey measuring weekly video game and television exposure, religiosity, and sexist attitudes toward women. Controlling for gender and socioeconomic level, results showed that video game exposure and religiosity were both related to sexism. Implications of these results for future research on sexism in video games are discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Elisa Sarda
- LIP-PC2S, Université Grenoble AlpesGrenoble, France
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Abstract
Sexually objectifying portrayals of women are a frequent occurrence in mainstream media, raising questions about the potential impact of exposure to this content on others' impressions of women and on women's views of themselves. The goal of this review was to synthesize empirical investigations testing effects of media sexualization. The focus was on research published in peer-reviewed, English-language journals between 1995 and 2015. A total of 109 publications that contained 135 studies were reviewed. The findings provided consistent evidence that both laboratory exposure and regular, everyday exposure to this content are directly associated with a range of consequences, including higher levels of body dissatisfaction, greater self-objectification, greater support of sexist beliefs and of adversarial sexual beliefs, and greater tolerance of sexual violence toward women. Moreover, experimental exposure to this content leads both women and men to have a diminished view of women's competence, morality, and humanity. Limitations with the existing research approaches and measures are discussed, and suggestions for future research directions are provided.
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Ward LM, Seabrook RC, Manago A, Reed L. Contributions of Diverse Media to Self-Sexualization among Undergraduate Women and Men. SEX ROLES 2015. [DOI: 10.1007/s11199-015-0548-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/01/2022]
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The Dark Triad and trait self-objectification as predictors of men’s use and self-presentation behaviors on social networking sites. PERSONALITY AND INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES 2015. [DOI: 10.1016/j.paid.2014.12.017] [Citation(s) in RCA: 248] [Impact Index Per Article: 27.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/28/2023]
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