Predicting depression in dementia caregivers: do religious/spiritual struggles play a role?

OBJECTIVES

Using a stress process framework model, the goal of this study was to address the current gap in our understanding of the prevalence and predictive power of specific types of religious/spiritual struggles for mental health outcomes in informal dementia caregivers.

METHOD

A convenience sample of 156 informal dementia caregivers completed a scale measuring six domains of religious/spiritual struggles, as well as other measures of primary stressors, background/contextual variables, and mental health outcome (depression).

RESULTS

Overall levels of religious/spiritual struggle were low, but 26 percent of the sample were classified as possible cases of clinically significant religious/spiritual struggle for at least one of the six domains. Of this group, 49 percent acknowledged struggles with ultimate meaning. Religious/spiritual struggles predicted greater self-reported depression over and above number of care recipient problem behaviors (primary stressor), caregiver sex, and caregiver personality (i.e. emotional stability). Although no individual domain of religious/spiritual struggle emerged as most salient, caregivers reported significantly more ultimate meaning struggles than demonic or interpersonal struggles.

CONCLUSION

Consistent with the stress process framework model, religious/spiritual struggles appeared to operate as a secondary stressor for informal dementia caregivers, adding predictive power to background/contextual factors and to primary stressors for the measured outcome of self-reported depression. One-fourth of the sample self-reported potentially clinically significant religious/spiritual struggles, with ultimate meaning struggles most commonly reported. Further research in this area may advance efforts to better equip both secular and religious professionals to provide evidence-based counsel to informal dementia caregivers.

Exploring Coping Strategies and Barriers in Dementia Care: A Mixed-Methods Study of African American Family Caregivers in Kentucky

This study explores coping strategies and barriers to dementia care experienced by African American dementia caregivers in Kentucky. Utilizing a convergent mixed-method design integrating focus group and survey data on African American dementia caregivers recruited through churches in Kentucky (N = 28), we elucidate three coping strategies: love-based coping, religion-based coping, and family support. Results from survey data supported these themes, with over 90% of participants reporting that they provide care to give back to family members and for religious reasons. However, over half of the caregivers' reported strain due to three barriers identified by focus group data: time constraints, low support, and the high cost of formal care. This exploratory study highlights the importance of intervention tactics for African American dementia caregivers that focus not only on individual and family support but also community-based outreach and support.

African American Family Caregivers Share How they Prepared for the Death of an Older Adult with Dementia: A Pilot Study of Hospice Care in A Nursing Home

The focus of this pilot study was to ascertain how bereaved African American caregivers prepared for the death of an older family member who died from a dementia-related diagnosis and the role of hospice care; an area with little research to date. Because African American older adults in the United States are at greater risk than Caucasian older adults for dementia-related health problems though less likely to be diagnosed, treated, or to enroll in hospice services, this exploratory study asked questions of the family caregivers' experiences in preparing for the death. Purposive criterion sampling was used to identify six African American bereaved caregivers whose family member lived in a nursing home (five who were enrolled in hospice services) who were extensively interviewed, with the use of conventional content analysis of the transcripts to identify the findings. Because of the limited sample size, themes identified were considered preliminary and may help guide ongoing and further research. Five primary themes revealed ways caregivers prepared: accepting reality; "I just kind of knew;" person with dementia "was ready;" "spending time;" and, getting your "business in order." All caregivers believed it was important to be prepared for the death, with the five who received hospice services reporting that they were prepared. Further research is needed to explore these preliminary findings of African American caregivers of family members with dementia at end-of-life to further inform social work and hospice team care.

Religious coping and psychological well-being in Latino Alzheimer's caregivers

OBJECTIVES

Prior research has demonstrated the benefits of religion on caregiver well-being; however, less research exists on the processes underlying this relationship, particularly in Latino Alzheimer's disease (AD) families. This study's aim was therefore to explore the direct and indirect influences of positive religious coping (RC-P) and negative religious coping (RC-N) on caregivers' experiences of depression and anxiety.

METHODS

The data are from the Circulo de Cuidado Study baseline interviews; participant eligibility criteria were that the person identifies as being Latino, providing at least 5 h of care weekly, and their relative has an AD diagnosis and neuropsychiatric symptoms. In person at-home interviews were conducted in Spanish with 67 caregivers. Religious coping was assessed with the Brief RCOPE; depression and anxiety were measured with the Center for Epidemiological Studies Depression Scale-Spanish version and State Anxiety Inventory. Multivariate regression analyses, controlling for caregiving stressors, were used to test our core hypotheses.

RESULTS

As hypothesized, RC-N had significant direct effect on depression (p < 0.001) and anxiety (p < 0.001) as well as partially mediated the relationship between caregiver subjective stressor and depression (p < 0.01) and anxiety (p < 0.01). However, contrary to our hypothesis, RC-P did not have a direct or indirect effects on psychological well-being.

CONCLUSIONS

Our findings are consistent with other studies linking RC-N to poorer caregiver outcomes. Caregivers who questioned God's power, perceived God punishing them, or felt abandoned by God reported greater levels of depression and anxiety. The results suggest that caregivers experiencing religious distress may feel overwhelmed and view a more hopeless future.

Perceptions and Attitudes Toward Dementia in Predominantly African American Congregants

The purpose of this study was to identify the perceptions and attitudes of African American congregants toward dementia before and after attending a dementia-focused workshop. Six churches in Metropolitan Atlanta, Georgia, hosted the workshops. Attendees (N = 171) participated in a free association exercise to evaluate their perceptions and attitudes toward dementia. Before and after the workshop, participants wrote words and phrases that occurred to them when they thought of dementia. Content analysis was used to identify themes. Before the workshop, participants' responses tended to include negative language (e.g., fear, memory loss, sadness). After the workshop, participants expressed more positive words (e.g., support, hopefulness, caring). These findings suggest that education can change congregants' perceptions about dementia and potentially reduce dementia-associated stigma. This change will allow families to feel comfortable both interacting with and seeking help from those in their faith communities.

Knowledge and attitude towards Alzheimer's disease and related dementias in a low- to middle-income country: a cross-sectional survey among Lebanese middle-aged and older adults

BACKGROUND

Despite the growing burden of Alzheimer's disease and related dementias (ADRD) in low- to middle-income countries (LMICs) and prior findings of important gaps in research on ADRD knowledge, very few studies have assessed ADRD knowledge in these populations. This study evaluates the knowledge and attitudes towards ADRD among Lebanese middle-aged and older adults.

METHOD

Participants aged ≥ 40 (n = 215) attending primary care clinics at a large medical centre in Lebanon completed the Alzheimer's Disease Knowledge Scale (ADKS), an attitude scale, and the Duke University Religion Index.

RESULTS

ADRD knowledge accuracy was 61.5% (mean score = 18.6 out of 30 (SD = 3.05)). Items with the least correct answers were related to caregiving and risk factors (≤9% and ≤28%). Overall, participants had tolerant views concerning ADRD; the least positive views were regarding living with people with ADRD. Older age, lower educational attainment, and higher religiosity scores were associated with poorer knowledge and attitudes.

CONCLUSION

Results highlight the need for awareness and preventive efforts that address misconceptions about modifiable risk factors and living with ADRD, especially given that the burden of caregiving for older adults often falls on family members in Lebanon and other LMIC countries.

Taking the Test: A Qualitative Analysis of Cultural and Contextual Factors Impacting Neuropsychological Assessment of Xhosa-Speaking South Africans

Objective

There is an urgent need to make neuropsychological (NP) testing more acceptable, accessible, and culturally salient, particularly for culturally, educationally, and linguistically diverse individuals from countries who may have little-to-no experience with NP testing. In settings with limited resources such as South Africa, unique cultural and contextual factors (e.g., structural inequality, poverty) may impact the experience of NP evaluation. Research in this area is limited and requires further exploration. This qualitative study explores the role of cultural and contextual factors that may impact the experience of NP evaluation in a sample of Xhosa-speaking South African adults. Participant interviews explored the context from which individuals arrived at the NP assessment (e.g., quality of education, understanding of cognitive disorders), and their experience of completing NP tests.

Method

This qualitative study used data from semistructured interviews to conduct a thematic analysis exploring contextual factors and the experience of completing NP tests for the first time among Xhosa-speaking South African adults (N = 22). Results: Although no participants had prior experience with NP testing, most found testing procedures acceptable. Most participants, however, reported a limited understanding of the purpose of NP testing and cognitive problems. Additionally, some participants reported perceptions and attitudes that could affect test performance, such as misinterpreting standard testing procedures (e.g., no feedback from the examiner, being stopped mid-task) as indicative of poor performance.

Conclusions

This study provided much needed exploration into unique cultural factors that may impact the experience of NP assessment in South Africa, which could bias test performance and interpretation, and may aid the field of cross-cultural NP in better serving culturally and linguistically diverse populations. In these countries, neuropsychologists may need to actively evaluate participants’ understanding of NP testing to help foster optimal assessment conditions. They may also need to educate participants on possible causes of cognitive disorders.

When Death With Dementia Is “A Memory Seared in My Brain”: Caregivers’ Recommendations to Health Care Professionals

The purpose of this study is to determine family caregivers’ recommendations for professional health care professionals on how to help prepare them for the death of an elder with dementia. Purposive criterion sampling was employed to identify 30 bereaved caregivers of family members aged 65 and older who died with a dementia-related diagnosis. In-depth, qualitative interviews were conducted over a 12-month period, and qualitative content analysis was used to analyze the data. Three primary themes emerged: (a) Educate Caregivers, (b) Lead Caregivers, and (c) Provide a Caring and Compassionate Presence. The results highlight the importance of various health care professionals’ roles in preparing family caregivers for a death. In doing so, both the dying and their caregivers may have a better end-of-life experience with improved bereavement outcomes.

Sense of Coherence and Caregivers of Persons with Dementia

Unpaid caregivers (CG) provide most of the assistance to persons with dementias (PWD) living in the community. This study explores the current state of knowledge regarding the concept of sense of coherence (SOC) and CG of PWD via a concept analysis. The identified defining attributes were health, health-related quality of life (HRQoL), CG burden, CG stress, coping as a strength, gender, and decreasing sense of CG coherence over the progression of the disease (dementia). Further study by health care professionals using clinical observations, large samples of respondents, a consistent theory, valid and reliable instruments used to measure defining attributes consistently, and critical reviews of the literature are needed.

Barriers and Facilitators to Preparedness for Death: Experiences of Family Caregivers of Elders with Dementia

Less is known about how caregivers prepare (or not) for the death of a family member with dementia. This study's purpose was to explore how caregivers handle these dementia deaths, including identification of barriers and facilitators to preparing caregivers for the death of an elder family member dying with dementia. This qualitative, descriptive study employed a purposive sampling strategy in which the principal investigator interviewed 36 caregivers of family members age 65 and older who died from a dementia-related diagnosis. Directed content analysis was used to analyze the data. Four primary themes were identified as barriers: (1) hindrances to information; (2) barriers to hospice; (3) ineffective attempts to comfort; and (4) the nature of death with dementia. Six themes were identified as facilitators: (1) religious/spiritual beliefs; (2) caregiver initiative; (3) prior experience; (4) bearing witness to decline; (5) professionals alerting caregiver (of what to expect of impending death); and (6) culture and legacy of family caregiving. The results support an increased role of social work in addressing caregivers' awareness of impending death and helping prepare them for the death of an elder with dementia.

The moderating effect of religiosity on caregiving burden and depressive symptoms in caregivers of patients with dementia

OBJECTIVES

This study explored whether religiosity/spirituality has a protective role against negative caregiving outcomes, in a large multicenter nationwide sample of caregivers of patients with dementia in South Korea. Additionally, this study was the first to examine whether religiosity/spirituality could affect caregiving outcomes according to the various religious affiliations of caregivers.

METHODS

The study was conducted on a sample of 476 caregivers of patients with dementia participated in the Clinical Research Center for Dementia of South Korea (CREDOS). We examined the moderating effect of each of the three dimensions of religiosity/spirituality (organizational religious activity, ORA; non-organizational religious activity, NORA; intrinsic religiosity, IR) on the relationship between activities of daily living (ADL) of patients with dementia and caregiving burden and depressive symptoms of caregivers, using a series of hierarchical regression analyses. In addition, these analyses were conducted according to the religious affiliations of the caregivers.

RESULTS

ORA, NORA, and IR of religiosity/spirituality alleviated the effect of ADL of patients on caregiving burden. ORA and IR moderated the relationship between ADL of patients and depressive symptoms of caregivers. These moderating effects of religiosity on caregiving outcomes were different according to various religious groups.

CONCLUSION

We have identified religiosity/spirituality as a protective factor for caregivers of patients with dementia. The sub-dimensions of religiosity as moderators were different by religious affiliations of caregivers. Further studies are needed to investigate the specific religiosity-related factors which could positively impact the mental health of the caregivers of patients with dementia by religions.

At the intersection of culture: Ethnically diverse dementia caregivers' service use

This study used an ethnocultural approach to explore how cultural factors influenced ethnically diverse dementia caregivers’ experiences and use of services. A modified thematic analysis of in-depth interviews with 15 caregivers, ranging in age from 50 to 75 years, including spouses, daughters, sons, cousins, and a friend, from three minority groups—African American, Hispanic, and South Korean caregivers—was conducted by a team of multi-lingual researchers. Caregiver stress was pervasive across all subgroups. Several themes emerged that were qualitatively different across groups, including knowledge about dementia, language barriers, religion and spirituality, and cultural differences in attitudes about caring and formal services. A two-pronged intervention model that includes a generic intervention to reduce caregiver stress along with a culturally targeted intervention tailored to a family’s language, food preferences, religious practices, gender norms, and other values was recommended to more successfully reach and support these caregivers.

Religious Involvement and Adaptation in Female Family Caregivers

OBJECTIVES

To examine the relationship between religious involvement (RI) and adaptation of women caring for family members with severe physical or neurological disability.

DESIGN

Two-site cross-sectional study.

SETTING

Community.

PARTICIPANTS

A convenience sample of 251 caregivers was recruited. RI and caregiver adaptation (assessed by perceived stress, caregiver burden, and depressive symptoms) were measured using standard scales, along with caregiver characteristics, social support, and health behaviors. Bivariate and multivariate analyses were conducted to identify relationships and mediating and moderating factors.

RESULTS

Religious involvement (RI) was associated with better caregiver adaptation independent of age, race, education, caregiver health, care recipient's health, social support, and health behaviors (B = -0.09, standard error = 0.04, t = -2.08, P = .04). This association was strongest in caregivers aged 58-75 and spouses and for perceived stress in blacks.

CONCLUSION

Religious involvement (RI) in female caregivers is associated with better caregiver adaptation, especially for those who are older, spouses of the care recipients, and blacks. These results are relevant to the development of future interventions that provide support to family caregivers.

Religious Involvement and Telomere Length in Women Family Caregivers

Telomere length (TL) is an indicator of cellular aging associated with longevity and psychosocial stress. We examine here the relationship between religious involvement and TL in 251 stressed female family caregivers recruited into a 2-site study. Religious involvement, perceived stress, caregiver burden, depressive symptoms, and social support were measured and correlated with TL in whole blood leukocytes. Results indicated a U-shaped relationship between religiosity and TL. Those scoring in the lowest 10% on religiosity tended to have the longest telomeres (5743 bp ± 367 vs. 5595 ± 383, p = 0.069). However, among the 90% of caregivers who were at least somewhat religious, religiosity was significantly and positively related to TL after controlling for covariates (B = 1.74, SE = 0.82, p = 0.034). Whereas nonreligious caregivers have relatively long telomeres, we found a positive relationship between religiosity and TL among those who are at least somewhat religious.

Caregiver burden for informal caregivers of patients with dementia: A systematic review

BACKGROUND

Dementia is an irreversible illness. The caregiver is expected to assume increased responsibility as the condition of the person with dementia declines. It is important to explore the factors constituting caregiver burden on the informal caregivers of people with dementia.

AIMS

The purpose of this article is to identify the factors constituting caregiver burden on the informal caregivers of people with dementia living in the community.

METHODS

A systematic review of the four databases, including PubMed, PsycINFO, CINAHL and the Cochrane Library, was carried out to access relevant articles published between 2003 and 2012. Twenty-one articles met the inclusion criteria of this study.

RESULTS

Behavioural problems or psychological symptoms were the primary factor of the person with dementia that is associated with caregiver burden. Caregiver socio-demographical factors and psychological factors were the two primary factors of the caregiver burden.

LIMITATIONS

Several results of this study were based on studies that had their own limitations. Furthermore, the concept of caregiver 'burden' was not clearly defined in some of the studies; instead, the term was broadly defined.

CONCLUSION

Factors of caregiver burden in regard to people with dementia living in the community were clarified in this review study. By identifying all of the factors, healthcare professionals can deliver appropriate assistance to relieve caregiver burden and improve the quality of caregiving for people with dementia.

IMPLICATIONS FOR NURSING AND HEALTH POLICY

It is important to identify the factors of the burden on the caregivers of people with dementia living in the community to prevent early nursing home placement, deterioration of caregiver's health and reduce the adverse health outcomes for care recipients. A health-related policy should be formulated to help informal caregivers receive more professional assistance. Training opportunities should be provided for family caregivers to reduce the impact of caregiving on the delivery of effective care.

Caregiving across the lifespan: comparing caregiver burden, mental health, and quality of life

BACKGROUND

Care can be considered a lifelong process, but caring for a child is different from caring for an older adult. The present study aims to compare the caregiving process from infancy through old age by evaluating differences in caregiver burden, mental health, and quality of life and to describe the factors that could impact these outcomes.

METHODS

To compare different groups of caregivers, we included 300 caregivers recruited from admissions to a tertiary acute hospital: 100 caregivers of children, 100 caregivers of adults, and 100 caregivers of older adults. A self-administered questionnaire was used that covered the following: sociodemographics, depression (Beck Depression Inventory), anxiety (Beck Anxiety Inventory), quality of life (Short Form Health Survey (SF-36)), religiosity (Duke Religion Index) and caregiver burden (Zarit Caregiver Burden Interview).

RESULTS

A comparison between groups was performed (through χ² and anova), and a linear regression analysis was used to assess the related factors. We found that children's caregivers had more depressive symptoms (higher Beck Depression Inventory scores), better physical health (SF-36: physical functioning and SF-36: Physical Component Summary), and lower pain (SF-36: bodily pain) than other caregivers. We found that caregivers of adults had better mental health (SF-36: mental health and SF-36: Mental Component Summary) than other caregivers and that caregivers of older adult had a higher caregiver burden (Zarit Caregiver Burden Interview scores) than other caregivers. After we controlled for baseline characteristics, only depressive symptoms and caregiver burden remained statistically significant.

CONCLUSION

In conclusion, there are important differences between caregiving across the lifespan. Caregiving for children was associated with more depressive symptoms, and caregiving for older adults was associated with higher caregiver burden. Further studies are needed to replicate these findings in other settings.

Nursing home care: exploring the role of religiousness in the mental health, quality of life and stress of formal caregivers

Despite the high number of studies on family caregivers, there is little research on the impact of religiosity on formal caregiving (paid providers). We examine the role of religiousness in the mental health, quality of life and stress of nurse aides (NA) who provide care for patients in a nursing home. NA in a Brazilian nursing home were invited to participate. Because of its coping function, we hypothesized that religiousness was related to better mental health and quality of life. Linear regression was used to test this hypothesis and control for confounders. Compared with the Brazilian general population, NA scored higher on measures of religious involvement. Intrinsic religiosity was associated with better mental health and quality of life. Organizational religiosity was associated with better social functioning, better general mental health and fewer anxiety symptoms. Non-organizational religiosity (prayer), however, was associated with negative outcomes, such as higher stress, poorer general health perceptions and more anxiety symptoms. Most NA indicated that they had prayed for and with their patients. In conclusion, paid caregivers (NA) have a strong sense of religiousness, which plays an important role in many ways, including the type of care they provide, their mental health and their quality of life.

Religious Coping in Caregivers of Family Members With Dementia

The degree of depression experienced by caregivers of individuals with dementia was examined in relation to religious coping strategies, religious practice, and spirituality in the framework of the stress and coping model. Caregivers of 191 persons with dementia completed the Religious Coping Scale, self-report measures of religious practices and spirituality, burden, and depression. There was no evidence that any religious coping strategy or religious practice moderated the relationship between caregiving stress and depression. Certain types of religious coping strategies had a direct effect on depression. Higher levels of religious coping working with God were associated with decreased depression, whereas higher levels of religious coping working through God were associated with increased depression. Higher burden, lower overall caregiver health rating, and worse reactions to memory and behavior problems were associated with higher levels of depression. Frequency of prayer and the importance of spirituality were weakly associated with lower levels of depression.

The Role of Religious Coping and Race in Alzheimer’s Disease Caregiving

Alzheimer’s disease (AD) and other dementias are one of the most critical public health problems in elderly population. Using baseline data from the Resources for Enhancing Alzheimer’s Caregiver Health (REACH) II study, this study examined the relationship between religious coping, burden appraisal, depression, and race among 211 African American, 220 White, and 211 Hispanic caregivers, using structural equation modeling (SEM). Caregiver burden appraisal mediated the effect of religious coping on depression with higher religious coping resulting in lowering caregiver burden appraisal and thereby reducing depression. The results also showed that religious coping mediation model was best supported by African Americans. Greater understanding of religious coping and its role in the caregiving process helps researchers discover better ways to assist racially diverse caregivers in dealing with burdens of AD caregiving.

Korean American Dementia Caregivers’ Attitudes Toward Caregiving

The purpose of this study was to explore how Korean American family caregivers view the services they offer to patients with dementia. It also investigated the roles of social networks and satisfaction with social support on attitudes toward caregiving. Social network, satisfaction with social support, demographic characteristics, caregiving-related stress factors, and cultural factors were examined. We used a convenience sample of 85 Korean American dementia caregivers. The results from hierarchical multiple regression models show that the level of satisfaction with social support significantly contributed to Korean American caregivers’ attitudes toward working with patients with dementia, while no statistically significant associate was found for social network. Higher levels of satisfaction with social support were associated with greater positive attitudes toward caregiving among Korean American caregivers ( b = 0.26, p = .024). The implications for mental health professionals and policy makers are discussed.

Unmet home care service needs of rural older adults with Alzheimer's disease: a perspective of informal caregivers

This study assessed unmet service needs of rural older adults with Alzheimer's disease (AD) and identified factors that were related to these needs. Data were collected from 109 informal caregivers of AD patients. Over half of the patients experienced unmet service needs in 1 or more areas of activities of daily functioning. Informal caregiver burden and patient's gender and functional status were significantly related to patients' unmet service needs. Patients' use of formal services was marginally related to their unmet service needs. To better address patients' service needs, a comprehensive needs assessment should be conducted with both patients and their caregivers.

Current and long-term spousal caregiving and onset of cardiovascular disease

BACKGROUND

Prior evidence suggests that caregiving may increase risk of cardiovascular disease (CVD) onset. This association has never been examined in a nationally (USA) representative sample, and prior studies could not fully control for socioeconomic confounders. This paper seeks to estimate the association between spousal caregiving and incident CVD in older Americans.

METHODS

Married, CVD-free Health and Retirement Study respondents aged 50+ years (n=8472) were followed up to 8 years (1669 new stroke or heart disease diagnoses). Current caregiving exposure was defined as assisting a spouse with basic or instrumental activities of daily living ≥14 h/week according to the care recipients' report in the most recent prior biennial survey; we define providing ≥14 h/week of care at two consecutive biennial surveys as 'long-term caregiving'. Inverse probability weighted discrete-time hazard models with time-updated exposure and covariate information (including socioeconomic and cardiovascular risk factors) were used to estimate the effect of caregiving on incident CVD.

RESULTS

Caregiving significantly predicted CVD incidence (HR=1.35, 95% CI 1.06 to 1.68) in the population overall. Long-term caregiving was associated with double the risk of CVD onset (HR=1.95, 95% CI 1.19 to 3.18). This association for long-term care givers varied significantly by race (p<0.01): caregiving predicted CVD onset for white (HR=2.37, 95% CI 1.43 to 3.92) but not for non-white (HR=0.28, 95% CI 0.06 to 1.28).

CONCLUSIONS

Spousal caregiving independently predicted risk of CVD in a large sample of US adults. There was significant evidence that the effect for long-term care givers differs for non-whites and white.