An in-depth literature review of the waste electrical and electronic equipment context: trends and evolution

Ghana's recently introduced e-waste regulatory policy: A hope for a better e-waste sector?

Electronic waste (e-waste), often dominated by the informal sector, has had adverse effects on recipient developing countries' economies, health and physical environment. Ghana, over the years, has had support from international organisations to manage its e-waste crisis. Until 2016, there was no e-waste specific policy to guide the management of the sector. In 2016, Ghana passed a regulatory policy - Act 917 - to specifically deal with e-waste, supported by other frameworks such as a regulatory instrument (L.I. 2250), a technical guideline for environmentally sound e-waste management and an e-waste-specific policy, which is currently being developed. However, there is dearth of research on how effectively a regulatory policy such as Act 917 can help address an informally dominated sector whose crude recycling approaches have had great environmental and health impacts. Adapting the analytical framework and intervention theory, key stakeholders within the e-waste sector were interviewed on: the effectiveness of the Act, the challenges confronting them and their involvement in the design and implementation processes. The findings showed that stakeholders were represented at various stages of the process. Informal recyclers were provided with training programmes, health centres and an incentive scheme to minimise burning of electrical and electronic equipment. There however exist many challenges to the sound management of the sector, particularly, the lack of end-to-end recycling facilities, registering and formalising the sector and sequencing of the e-waste policy and regulatory framework. The research concludes by recommending areas for future studies.

Option or necessity: Role of environmental education as transformative change agent

There is a consensus around the importance of environmental education in mitigating the ill effects of environmental problems and preserving the natural environment and promoting green behaviours. The present paper studies the role of environmental education based on transformative learning theory. It intends to present and test a model proposal using sequential mediation analysis of several constructs as the Environmental Education Support (EES) and Volunteer Attitude (VA). A quantitative study was carried out by using data obtained through online questionnaires from several Indian and Brazilian Higher Education Institutions. A multivariate statistical method was employed to analyse the data by using partial least squares structural equation modelling. The results demonstrated that environmental education positively influences students' environmental concern, willingness to be environmentally friendly, and volunteer attitude. As a novelty, it reports that environmental education beliefs, concern for the environment and willingness to be environmentally friendly sequentially mediate the relationship between environmental education support and volunteering attitude.

Logistics performance: critical factors in the implementation of end-of-life management practices in the pharmaceutical care process

The management of healthcare waste and end-of-life medication coming from different sources are primary challenges faced by public health leaders. Several factors may be considered critical and inhibitive to reverse logistics within the context of waste management processes. If those factors are not addressed, they may become obstacles to reverse logistics implementation. The purpose of this study is to evaluate the effect that critical factors play in the adoption of end-of-life management practices for medication and its influence on logistics performance. Literature provided some critical factors: management factor, collaboration factor, information technology factor, infrastructure factor, politics factor, financial and economic factor, end-of-life management practices, and logistics performance factor. A sample of 67 professionals from the public pharmaceutical care process answered a structured questionnaire. The collected data was analyzed using partial least square-structural equation modeling. The theoretical structural test confirmed eleven out of the fifteen hypotheses considered. The results have indicated that end-of-life management practices exert a direct influence on logistics performance. The analysis confirmed a direct effect of the information technology factor on end-of-life management practices, but not a moderation effect. Findings have contributed to the literature by providing deeper insights into the relationship between end-of-life management practices for medicines and logistics performance. Moreover, it supports health managers' decision-making in the pharmaceutical care process improvement and engagement with solid waste management policies.

Product Lifecycle Information Flow in E-waste Handling: a Means to Increase Circularity?

Electronic waste (e-waste) is a growing waste stream. In Europe, e-waste is regulated by the Waste Electrical and Electronic Equipment (WEEE) Directive. Each manufacturer or importer is responsible for the end-of-life (EoL) treatment of the equipment it handles, although this task is usually outsourced to producer responsibility organizations (PROs) that collect and treat the e-waste. The WEEE regime has been criticized for focusing on waste handling according to the traditional linear economy, while, in a circular economy, the goal is to eliminate waste. Information sharing helps improve circularity, and digital technology is seen as enabling information transparency and visibility in the supply chain. However, there is need for empirical studies demonstrating the use of information in supply chains to improve circularity. We conducted a case study of a manufacturer, including its subsidiaries and PROs in eight European countries, in which we investigated the product lifecycle information flow related to e-waste. Our findings indicate that product lifecycle information is available, but that it is provided for purposes other than e-waste handling. Actors are willing to share this information, but it is not regarded as useful for EoL treatment since the actors involved in EoL handling believe that using this information could lead to delays and poorer performance in e-waste handling. Our findings contradict the optimistic view of digital technology as improving circularity in circular supply chain management. The findings further give reason to question the implementation of digital technology to improve the product lifecycle information flow as long as the involved actors do not request this information.

Struggles over waste: Preparing for re-use in the Danish waste sector

A circular economy (CE) aims to reduce waste and encourages keeping products, components, and materials circulating in the economy. Furthermore, following the European waste hierarchy, preparing for re-use (PfR) is regarded as a better waste management option than recycling. Nevertheless, too many products with a reuse potential end up as waste. This includes residuals from products that have no major value and are therefore not demanded by the current system. As a result, products are prematurely recycled. This contradicts both the priority order of the waste hierarchy and the principles of a CE. This article investigates the potential of and constraints to reusing products that are disposed of at municipal recycling stations. It aims to improve our understanding of these issues and offers possible solutions that could enable municipal waste companies to transition from waste to resource management and reach the upper levels of the waste hierarchy, preparing waste for re-use. Interviews with relevant stakeholders, desk studies and knowledge obtained from participating in waste conferences over the past 3 years are all used to analyze PfR practice at five municipal waste management companies in Denmark. Pioneers with respect to circularity in the waste sector, which have been experimenting with and initiating PfR schemes concerning a range of products, including building materials, furniture, white goods and bicycles, are considered because they support the inner cycles of the CE. However, results reveal that the current transition consists of complex processes connected to an ambivalent legal framework and struggles over access and rights to resources. Further, a more coherent conceptual understanding of PfR is needed as the current understanding has a too narrow focus on restoring product value rather than coupling PfR processes to the market. Thus, challenges to achieving higher PfR rates seem to go beyond engaging in strategic partnerships, creating financial incentives and setting separate targets for PfR. Consequently, a more holistic investigation appears to be necessary to deepen our understanding of processes of resource management and use and the contestation that exists over these. Furthermore, a wider mapping of the actors operating in the tension area of PfR, including their willingness to cooperate and negotiate a zone of agreement, could prove beneficial to practitioners and policy developers alike.

Transboundary movement of waste review: From binary towards a contextual framing

Multiple cases of toxic waste dumping from the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) countries to non-OECD countries in the 1980s led to scholarly attention to transboundary waste movements. The Basel Convention was established to provide an international legal framework to tackle such problems in the early 1990s, focusing on hazardous waste. However, the transboundary movement of all waste, not just hazardous waste, remains a societal challenge globally, frequently surfacing as an ethical question on the one hand and a story of resource management/trade on the other. This phenomenon has been studied across disciplines resulting in diverse, scattered and often contested understandings. Despite previous and ongoing efforts, waste production, management and transboundary movements are increasing and are predicted to grow significantly with global social, environmental and economic implications. This literature review uses a research synthesis and problematisation approach to critically analyse the transboundary waste literature since 1985. The findings highlight research trends, the need for data reliability and policy coherence, and the sustainability implications of the phenomenon. One recurring theme in the literature is the reduction of the complex phenomenon involving multiple countries, policies, actors and waste streams into simple opposite narratives, which we called transboundary waste binaries. We have identified and then challenged assumptions behind transboundary waste binaries and discussed the implications of such assumptions on the broader discourse. We have concluded with future research recommendations to look past the transboundary waste binaries towards a nuanced and contextual understanding of transboundary waste flows.

Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis of Mercury Exposure among Populations and Environments in Contact with Electronic Waste

Electronic waste (e-waste) recycling releases mercury (Hg) into the environment, though to our knowledge Hg levels at such sites have yet to be examined on a worldwide basis. A systematic review of scientific studies was conducted to extract, analyze, and synthesize data on Hg levels in e-waste products, environments near recycling sites, and in people. Data were extracted from 78 studies from 20 countries, and these included Hg levels in 1103 electrical and electronic products, 2072 environmental samples (soil, air, plant, food, water, dust), and 2330 human biomarkers (blood, hair, urine). The average Hg level in products was 0.65 μg/g, with the highest levels found in lamps (578 μg/g). Average soil and sediment Hg levels (1.86 μg/g) at e-waste sites were at least eight times higher than at control sites. Average urinary Hg levels (0.93 μg/g creatinine) were approximately two-fold higher among e-waste workers versus control groups. Collectively, these findings demonstrate that e-waste recycling may lead to Hg contamination in environments and human populations in close proximity to processing sites. These findings contribute to a growing knowledge base of mercury exposure through diverse source-exposure pathways, and the work has potential policy implications in the context of the Minamata Convention.

Analysis of environmental sustainability of e-waste in developing countries - a case study from Pakistan

The electronic waste generation rate is increasing drastically at a rate of 3 to 5% per year in developing countries. The aim of this study is to analyze the environmental sustainability and economic benefits of such e-waste management in the developing economies like Pakistan. The life cycle assessment (LCA) method has been employed for streamlined impact analysis of the end-of-life processing of e-waste focusing mainly on laptop computers and liquid crystal display (LCD) desktop computers in Pakistan. The method of cumulative exergy extraction from the natural environment (CEENE) has also been deployed for the relative assessment of resources' consumption of e-waste recycling versus landfilling scenario. The determined impact scores are 1.79E + 03 kg CO₂ eq., 7.19E-07 kg CFC-11 eq., 1.02E + 03 kg 1,4-DCB, 7.13E + 01 kg 1,4-DCB, and 3.41E-03 kg Cu eq. in climate change potential, stratospheric ozone depletion, ecotoxicity potential, human noncarcinogenic potential, and mineral resource depletion impact categories, respectively. The results of CEENE analysis reveal that approximately 80% of the impact on natural resources is reduced by the efficient recycling of e-waste. The comparative assessment of respective scores for current and target material weight recovery (MWR) indicators represented that by increasing the MWR indicator by 33.8% for laptop computers and by 27.2% for LCD computers, the country will achieve an annual economic benefit of US $191.56 million. This is greatly significant for a transitional shift towards e-waste revalorization while realizing the objectives of sustainable resource consumption. Innovative improvement measures ensuring economically feasible, energy-efficient, and environment friendly waste collection, treatment, and recycling practices present an invaluable opportunity for developing countries.

Consumer behaviour towards storage, disposal and recycling of e-waste: systematic review and future research prospects

Purpose

With the rapid increase in the consumption of electrical and electronic innovations, responsible management and recycling of electronic waste (e-waste) or waste electrical and electronic equipment (WEEE) has been a significant concern for the governments, stakeholders, researchers and industry practitioners around the world. Consumer awareness, disposal behaviour and perception are chief facets of designing sustainable management strategies. Although researchers have widely studied e-waste over many years, the research focusing on consumer awareness about e-waste recycling has gained momentum recently. This paper aims to systematise the existing literature and explore future research prospects on household e-waste sorting behaviour.

Design/methodology/approach

Web of science (WoS) core collection was searched using selected keywords to identify relevant articles published from 2001 to 2021. The search resulted in 1,156 research articles published from 2001 to 2021. After a detailed study, 85 articles were shortlisted for in-depth review. The review was conducted based on global trends, top journals, most prolific authors, most active e-waste research countries, and institutions centring on consumer participation in e-waste disposal and recycling behaviour. The present research has also identified around eleven factors that seem to have a bearing on consumer behaviour towards storage, disposal and recycling of e-waste.

Findings

E-waste research has gained increased attention in the last five years. The majority of the studies has focused on motivational factors and ignore the risks associated with handling e-waste. The present study reports the pertinent issue of lack of awareness among the masses about e-waste handling and disposal. Thus, bringing to the fore the lack of awareness programmes and initiatives. The analysis presents the gaps in the literature and future research agendas.

Originality/value

The review article will help in providing an in-depth understanding of consumer behaviour towards storage, disposal and recycling of e-waste and delineates the future direction of research that may be undertaken in this field of study.

A comparative study of national variations of the European WEEE directive: manufacturer's view

We are facing the challenge of rapid growth in waste from electrical products (e-waste). In Europe, handling e-waste is regulated by the European Waste Electrical and Electronic Equipment (WEEE) directive, which is based on the extended producer responsibility (EPR) model as a regulatory tool forcing manufacturers and importers to take responsibility for their products throughout their lifecycles. However, the directive allows for great variations in implementations in each country, causing e-manufacturers and e-waste handling operators to face challenges in their transition to more sustainable operations. To identify the challenges involved, this study investigates the effect of the WEEE directive from a manufacturer's perspective. A case study of an e-manufacturer operating subsidiaries in several European countries and the associated producer responsibility organizations (PROs) is presented. The case study includes interviews from 17 stakeholders in 12 organizations in eight European countries. Key findings are as follows. First, the WEEE data reported are not harmonized. Second, the calculations of the environmental fee differ across countries. Third, following up on different national WEEE obligations sometimes leads to over-reporting to avoid negative effects on environmental corporate social responsibility, brand reputation, and profitability. Fourth, outsourcing end-of-life (EoL) treatment responsibility to PROs is seen as positive by the manufacturer but results in a decoupling of the EPR and the operational EoL treatment, which may reduce efforts to transfer to a higher circularity level of its EEE products. Fifth, WEEE is considered a way for e-manufacturers to handle waste not to adopt a circular focus. This paper contributes to both practitioners and researchers within reverse logistics and sustainability by adding knowledge from real-life context of how EPR is implemented in WEEE.

New Models to Reduce the Health Risks of Informal WEEE Recyclers in MTN Phone Village, Rumukurushi, Port Harcourt, Nigeria

Waste electrical and electronic equipment (WEEE) management in Port Harcourt, an oil-producing city in Nigeria, has become an environmental challenge for the location. WEEE recycling is predominantly managed by informal recyclers, who lack the skills to perform risk-free recycling, hence raising health risks to individuals in associated communities and degrading the environment. Formal recycling, which embraces the best practices for effective WEEE management, is faced with several limitations, such as a lack of detailed guidelines on waste recycling, reuse, and final disposal techniques, with no opportunities for landfilling. A qualitative approach was adopted for this study. Data were gathered via questionnaires and analysed graphically. A background literature review of the assessment of informal recycling methods and associated challenges was performed. Hence, a new concept for the local management of WEEE processing was introduced. This concept limits the role of informal recyclers to WEEE collection. In this case, informal recyclers are paid for WEEE collection; they no longer engage in further WEEE processing. The results show that 48% and 40% agree to partner and collaborate with government agencies, respectively. Conversely, 52% and 40% agree and strongly agree, respectively, to limit their activities to WEEE collection only if the government is willing to pay for the services.

Why do Spanish households separate their e-waste for proper disposal? An econometric analysis

Improving e-waste separate collection rates is of the utmost importance to achieve the environmental targets set in the Sustainable Development Goals. Therefore, this paper aims to identify the factors influencing the intentions of Spanish households to separate their e-waste for proper disposal. To this end, we carry out an econometric analysis revealing that the preoccupation with environmental issues is an endogenous regressor, so a bivariate model is required to avoid inconsistent results. The analysis shows that environmental concern and the origin of the individuals are relevant factors that influence the e-waste separation decision. Additionally, we observe an interaction between age and city size, so the effect of one of these factors on the probability of separating e-waste depends on the other factor. Another important result is that several socio-economic variables and knowledge of environmental issues only indirectly affect attitudes, by way of environmental concern. In summary, this study offers a useful methodology to policymakers who have to deal with e-waste management, allowing them to identify the priority groups on which should be focused, as well as to design specific measures tailored to their characteristics.

Reverse logistics research of municipal hazardous waste: a literature review

The reverse logistics of municipal hazardous waste (RLMHW) have received close attention from researchers and practitioners alike, given the essential impact of safe transportation and effective management of hazardous waste on public health and environmental sustainability. There are a great number of studies in the extant literature on RLMHW, with many and diverse research topics; however, a concise and complete overview of the research works already conducted in this particular area is conspicuous by its absence. This paper strives to fill the gap through the conduct of rigorous systematic literature review of RLMHW in the past three decades, and then establish a framework of studies on RLMHW. The main contributions of this study are as follows: (1) to identify the trend of journals publishing research papers on RLMHW; (2) to extract the main topics in studies on RLMHW; (3) to locate the most popular research areas of RLMHW; (4) to summarize the methods adopted in studies on RLMHW; (5) to identify research deficiencies in certain categories of RLMHW; and (6) to establish the future research directions of RLMHW. The main implications of the study are to offer a better understanding of RLMHW by systematic crystallization of archival data in a systematic chronological order across central issues. This study contributes to scholarly debate in this field by serving as a snapshot paper to document the development of the field and gives input to policymakers in process design and policy making in the domain of RLMHW.

Dynamic, Adaptive Inline Process Monitoring for Laser Material Processing by Means of Low Coherence Interferometry

Surface laser structuring of electrical steel sheets can be used to manipulate their magnetic properties, such as energy losses and contribute to a more efficient use. This requires a technology such as low coherence interferometry, which makes it possible to be coupled directly into the existing beam path of the process laser and enables the possibility for an 100% inspection during the process. It opens the possibility of measuring directly in the machine, without removing the workpiece, as well as during the machining process. One of the biggest challenges in integrating an LCI measurement system into an existing machine is the need to use a different wavelength than the one for which the optical components were designed. This results in an offset between the measurement and processing spot. By integrating an additional scanning system exclusively for the measuring beam and developing a compensation model for the non-linear spot offset, this can be adaptively corrected by up to 98.9% so that the ablation point can be measured. The simulation model can also be easily applied to other systems with different components and at the same time allows further options for in-line quality assurance.

Evaluation of Communal Waste in Slovakia from the View of Chosen Economic Indicators

Waste treatment consists of activities required to make sure that waste has the least practical impact on the environment. In Slovakia, more than 50% of waste is in storage. Waste development depends on the economic situation of the state. In Slovakia, there is economic intolerance of waste treatment due to the weaker economic situation of the inhabitants. The goal of this contribution is to study the development of waste production in Slovakia in regard to economic indexes of households with the aim of improving waste management. The goal is achieved by searching for a relation between economic indexes and households by a correlation matrix and by verification of polynomial dependence. According to the results of the statistical importance, we found similarity of the regions in chosen indexes by using of cluster analysis. By this method a sustainable economy and healthy environment is guaranteed and waste is used to produce energy.

Life Cycle Assessment and Material Flow Analysis: Two Under-Utilized Tools for Informing E-Waste Management

The unprecedented technological development and economic growth over the past two decades has resulted in streams of rapidly growing electronic waste (e-waste) around the world. As the potential source of secondary raw materials including precious and critical materials, e-waste has recently gained significant attention across the board, ranging from governments and industry, to academia and civil society organizations. This paper aims to provide a comprehensive review of the last decade of e-waste literature followed by an in-depth analysis of the application of material flow analysis (MFA) and life cycle assessment (LCA), i.e., two less commonly used strategic tools to guide the relevant stakeholders in efficient management of e-waste. Through a keyword search on two main online search databases, Scopus and Web of Science, 1835 peer-reviewed publications were selected and subjected to a bibliographic network analysis to identify and visualize major research themes across the selected literature. The selected 1835 studies were classified into ten different categories based on research area, such as environmental and human health impacts, recycling and recovery technologies, associated social aspects, etc. With this selected literature in mind, the review process revealed the two least explored research areas over the past decade: MFA and LCA with 33 and 31 studies, respectively. A further in-depth analysis was conducted for these two areas regarding their application to various systems with numerous scopes and different stages of e-waste life cycle. The study provides a detailed discussion regarding their applicability, and highlights challenges and opportunities for further research.

Reuse assessment of WEEE: Systematic review of emerging themes and research directions

The reuse of Waste Electrical and Electronic Equipment (WEEE) is deemed the best end-of-life option in terms of the environmental impact and socio-economic benefits. Taking this cue, this paper applies a systematic literature review to map the existing knowledge base to present the major and emerging themes of the reuse assessment of WEEE. In all, 12,216 articles published from 2005 to 2019 in the Web of Science, ProQuest, and Google Scholar are collected, from which 331 articles are shortlisted for review. The shortlisted articles are divided into two sub-periods 2005-2014 and 2015-2019 to draw out the development of the research themes and the contribution of the recent research articles to the literature on WEEE reuse assessment. Bibliographic coupling combined with keyword analysis is performed using SciMat and VOSViewer. The results inform that the major ongoing themes are Consumer behaviour towards use, disposal, collection, reuse, repair and recycling of WEEE; Assessing the potential of WEEE for reuse; Product recovery strategy and market analysis for WEEE remanufacturing; and Material flow analysis of WEEE in circular economy. The research themes of Informal WEEE management in developing countries; Impact of government subsidy on WEEE management; and Product service system and circular economy deserve further attention. In the articles reviewed, mobile phones and computers are extensively studied for WEEE reuse assessment followed by refrigerators and televisions. Assessing the environmental impact and legal aspects of WEEE reuse, cross-border movements and flow in secondary markets, policies and regulations on the purchase of reprocessed WEEE, and the reprocessing and revenue made by the informal sector in developing countries are possibilities for future research.

E-waste-word of mouth (EW-WOM) generation: a fuzzy set qualitative comparative analysis (fs/QCA)

Purpose

This study aims to examine the asymmetrical relationships among information-sharing desire, moral attitudes, lack of concern, relative advantage, market maven tendency and complexity as the antecedents of E-waste-word of mouth (EW-WOM) generation.

Design/methodology/approach

To obtain a holistic view and the interrelationships between conditions, the configural analysis was conducted to assess the asymmetrical relationships using fuzzy set qualitative comparative analysis (fs/QCA). In addition, construct validity, reliability and symmetrical relationships between antecedent conditions (i.e. exogenous constructs) and outcome conditions (i.e. endogenous constructs) are examined using variance-based structural equation modeling (VB-SEM) technique.

Findings

Results imply that market maven tendency accounts for 86.8% of the sum of the memberships in EW-WOM generation. In total, 11 configurations show sufficiency in constructing EW-WOM generation. The configuration of relativeadvanta*moralattitudes*marketmaventend shows the highest consistency value (0.939684) in producing EW-WOM generation (outcome condition). The ∼relativeadvanta *moralattitudes*complexity*∼lackfconcern with raw coverage of 0.626757 and consistency value of 0.864088 show the most sufficient configuration path in producing the outcome.

Originality/value

Product review and recommendation are easily shared in various communication formats and consumers are prone to disseminate information and their experiences with other market segments. However, the role and phenomena of such viral communication in preventing environmental issues caused by electronic and electrical devices (i.e. E-waste) are not well understood. This study is among a few attempts at understanding consumer's decision-making process to engage in E-waste activities such as the reduction of garbage, recycling, compositing and the reuse of electronic or electrical devices.

Peer review

The peer review history for this article is available at: https://publons.com/publon/10.1108/OIR-11-2019-0343

A grey-DEMATEL approach for analyzing factors critical to the implementation of reverse logistics in the pharmaceutical care process

There is an increasing interest in product recovery, closed-loop supply chains, and reverse logistics (RL) for mitigating environmental impairment. Although RL is becoming a mandatory policy in developed countries, it is still in an embryonic stage in some industrial sectors of emerging economies. The purpose of this study is twofold: (1) identify the critical factors to the successful implementation of RL in the Brazilian pharmaceutical care process (PCP) and (2) determine the cause-and-effect relationships among them. We use snowball sampling to select the relevant RL studies and deductive reasoning and classification to identify the critical factors and a grey decision-making trial and evaluation laboratory (DEMATEL) to evaluate the cause-and-effect relationships among them. The study revealed management, collaboration, information technology, infrastructure, policy, financial and economic, end-of-life management practices, and logistic performance factors as the most relevant factors to the successful implementation of RL in the Brazilian PCP. The end-of-life management practices were identified as the most critical factor, and information technology was identified as the least critical factor. We further determined the end-of-life management practices and policy have the strongest casual relationship. The municipal PCP coordinators can use the findings of this study to formulate mitigating strategies to identify and eliminate barriers to the successful implementation of RL in the Brazilian PCP.

WEEE closed-loop supply chain network management considering the damage levels of returned products

Due to economic, social, and environmental concerns, managing waste electrical and electronic equipment (WEEE) has become an important research area. The WEEE directive gives responsibility to producers for developing a system for recycling and disposal activities and handle all associated costs. This study proposes a mixed integer programming model for decision-makers to manage their activities on the WEEE closed-loop supply chain network. A decision-maker may be a single producer of any size or a managing body formed by a group of producers and/or third-party companies in the network. The model contributes to the research field by integrating product returns with different quality and damage levels. A set of scenarios was designed to evaluate the effects of the directive and the network design related issues (e.g., the minimum collection rates, the number of producers and stores in the network) on the objective function. The results indicate that the capacity balance among stores, producers, and recovery centers is vital to make the network profitable and sustainable.

Circularity in Waste Electrical and Electronic Equipment (WEEE) Directive. Comparison of a Manufacturer’s Danish and Norwegian Operations

Waste electrical and electronic equipment (WEEE) as a reverse supply chain (RSC) has a low degree of circularity, mainly focusing on recovering or recycling. Targets to increase the circularity have recently been introduced in the EU WEEE directive. In this case study, we have investigated how WEEE is handled within an electric and electronic (EE) equipment manufacturer. The case study includes findings from two different Nordic countries, Norway and Denmark, with interviews of six stakeholders. The case study shows that there are significant differences in how the case company fulfills its extended producer responsibility (EPR), especially related to reporting. The study also found that there is a mismatch between the ambitions in the WEEE directive and a company’s approach related to circularity in the end-of-life phase of an EE product. Based on the results of this case study and from the literature we propose recommendations on alignment with other directives and on a common information regime within the WEEE RSC.

A review of sustainable e-waste generation and management: Present and future perspectives

Studies on sustainable management of waste from electrical and electronic equipment (or e-waste) have gained increasing attention from researchers around the world in recent years, with investigations into various aspects of e-waste management were investigated. Studies on e-waste generation by previous papers have been reviewed to provide an overview of the current research progress and recommendations for future research. The relevant existing studies were collected from various databases. Using content analysis, three main aspects of the existing studies were evaluated: the distribution and trends of the publications, the scope and boundaries of the studies, and the current research practices and research applications. Although there was a significant increasing trend of the amount of research on the evaluation of e-waste generation, however, the number of publications based on the countries of origin was still small. Another limitation was found related to the differences in the selection of research subjects and the level of analysis resulted in variations in the scopes and boundaries of the existing studies. Various other research areas were investigated further based on their research findings, but the analysis of various methodological aspects was complicated due to the increasing number of newly developed methodologies and the lack of comprehensive and up-to-date reviews on this research area. Additionally, there was also a need to evaluate emerging and/or older technology, which led electrical appliances to be overlooked. We found that comprehensive and up-to-date reviews of the methodological aspects of e-waste generation are still lacking. Based on the research gaps and limitations discussed, recommendations for future research were made.

An Organic Redox Flow Cell-Inspired Paper-Based Primary Battery

A portable paper-based organic redox flow primary battery using sustainable quinone chemistry is presented. The compact prototype relies on the capillary forces of the paper matrix to develop a quasi-steady flow of the reactants through a pair of porous carbon electrodes without the need of external pumps. Co-laminar capillary flow allows operation Under mixed-media conditions, in which an alkaline anolyte and an acidic catholyte are employed. This feature enables higher electrochemical cell voltages during discharge operation and the utilization of a wider range of available species and electrolytes and provides the advantage to form a neutral or near-neutral pH as the electrolytes neutralize at the absorbent pad, which allows a safe disposal after use. The effects of the device design parameters have been studied to enhance battery features such as power output, operational time, and fuel utilization. The device achieves a faradaic efficiency of up to 98 %, which is the highest reported in a capillary-based electrochemical power source, as well as a cell capacity of up to 11.4 Ah L^-1  cm^-2 , comparable to state-of-the-art large-scale redox flow cells.

Metal Levels, Genetic Instability, and Renal Markers in Electronic Waste Workers in Thailand

Background:

Informal electronic waste (e-waste) recycling is an increasingly important industry worldwide. However, few studies have studied the health risks in this group of workers.

Objective:

To assess the associations between occupational exposures to metals and genetic instability and renal markers among e-waste recycling workers.

Methods:

We recruited informal e-waste recycling workers from a community in northeastern Thailand. Participants completed a questionnaire, several health measurements, and provided urine and blood samples, which we then analyzed for a number of metals including lead (Pb), cadmium (Cd), and manganese (Mn). Samples were analyzed for a marker of RNA and DNA damage (ie, oxidative stress), 8-hydroxy-2'-deoxyguanosine (8-OHdG). Glomerular filtration rate (GFR) and fractional excretion of calcium (FECa%) were measured as markers of renal function. Correlations and regression models were used to assess associations between these various factors.

Results:

We found significantly higher levels of Cd and Pb in blood of men compared with those in women. Men who worked >48 hours/week had significantly higher levels of 8-OHdG compared with men who worked ≤48 hours/week. Smoking was significantly associated with higher blood Pb and Cd concentrations among men.

Conclusion:

Our results suggest gender differences in both blood concentrations of metals associated with e-waste recycling and smoking and highlight potentially elevated oxidative stress associated with longer work hours. Health promotion efforts are needed among informal e-waste recyclers to reduce possible risks of renal damage and cancer.

A Preparation for Reuse Trial of Washing Machines in Ireland

This paper presents the results of a “preparation for reuse” trial of washing machines in Ireland. For the trial, a methodology for the quantitative assessment of potentially reusable appliances in the waste electric and electronic equipment (WEEE) stream is developed and applied to a statistically significant sample allowing the study to quantify a theoretical potential for the “preparation for reuse” of washing machines in the WEEE stream in Ireland under current collection conditions. For a statistically significant sample size, data on preparation for re-use trials conducted on B2C (Business-to-Consumer) WEEE was collected and reviewed. From the 23,129 appliances which were accepted into the trial, the study found that 327 of these washing machines were successfully prepared for reuse and sold back into the Irish market, leading to an overall reuse rate of 1.5%. A quantitative analysis of the trial data is presented with a complimentary qualitative evaluation which provides insights into the causes for this low reuse figure, the occurrence of specific repairs and recommended actions to address these.

Oxidant/complexing properties of the methimazole (MeImHS)/iodine system towards palladium and gold metals. Crystal structure of the complex cation [PdII(MeImHS)4]2+ balanced by a tetraiodide/iodide mixture

The oxidative dissolution of palladium is easily and safely achievable both in dichloromethane and water by the methimazole/I₂ mixture.

What is the resource footprint of a computer science department? Place, people, and Pedagogy

Internet and Communication Technology/electrical and electronic equipment (ICT/EEE) form the bedrock of today’s knowledge economy. This increasingly interconnected web of products, processes, services, and infrastructure is often invisible to the user, as are the resource costs behind them. This ecosystem of machine-to-machine and cyber-physical-system technologies has a myriad of (in)direct impacts on the lithosphere, biosphere, atmosphere, and hydrosphere. As key determinants of tomorrow’s digital world, academic institutions are critical sites for exploring ways to mitigate and/or eliminate negative impacts. This Report is a self-deliberation provoked by the questionHow do we create more resilient and healthier computer science departments: living laboratories for teaching and learning about resource-constrained computing, computation, and communication?Our response for University College London (UCL) Computer Science is to reflect on how, when, and where resources—energy, (raw) materials including water, space, and time—are consumed by the building (place), its occupants (people), and their activities (pedagogy). This perspective and attendant first-of-its-kind assessment outlines a roadmap and proposes high-level principles to aid our efforts, describing challenges and difficulties hindering quantification of the Department’s resource footprint. Qualitatively, we find a need to rematerialise the ICT/EEE ecosystem: to reveal the full costs of the seemingly intangible information society by interrogating the entire life history of paraphernalia from smartphones through servers to underground/undersea cables; another approach is demonstrating the corporeality of commonplace phrases and Nature-inspired terms such as artificial intelligence, social media, Big Data, smart cities/farming, the Internet, the Cloud, and the Web. We sketch routes to realising three interlinked aims: cap annual power consumption and greenhouse gas emissions, become a zero waste institution, and rejuvenate and (re)integrate the natural and built environments.

Heavy metal dissolution mechanisms from electrical industrial sludge

In this paper, we investigate the release of heavy metals from sludge produced from an electrical industry using both organic and inorganic acids. Single and sequential extractions were conducted to assess heavy metals in different phases of the sludge. Metal release from sludge was investigated in the presence of three inorganic acids (nitric, sulfuric, and phosphoric) and three organic acids (acetic, malic, and citric) at concentrations ranging from 0.1 to 2.0 mol L^-1. Sequential extraction indicated the presence of Cu primarily in the carbonate fraction, Pb in the residual fraction, and Ni in the FeMn oxide fraction. The cumulative release rates of heavy metals (i.e., Pb, Cu, and Ni) by 1.0 mol L^-1 of acid increased with the use of the following acids in the order of: malic < sulfuric < acetic < phosphoric < citric < nitric. Acetic acid exhibited the highest release of Cu, at a rate of 72.62 × 10^-11 mol m^-2 s^-1 at pH 1, and malic acid drove the release of Pb at a maximum rate of 3.90 × 10^-11 mol m^-2 s^-1. Meanwhile, nitric acid provided the maximum rate of Ni release (0.23 × 10^-11 mol m^-2 s^-1) at pH 1. The high rate of metal release by organic acids is explained through ligand-promoted mechanisms that enhance the release of metal ions from the sludge. The results from our study emphasize that an understanding of the metal release mechanism is key to selecting the optimal acid for the maximum recovery of heavy metals.

MIR spectral characterization of plastic to enable discrimination in an industrial recycling context: I. Specific case of styrenic polymers

One of the major limitations in polymer recycling is their sorting as they are collected in mixes. The majority of polymers are highly incompatible without compatibilizers. For sorting of polymers, high-speed online Near-Infrared (NIR) spectroscopy is nowadays relatively widespread. It is however limited by the use of carbon black as a pigment and UV-stabilizer, which strongly absorbs near-infrared signals. Mid-Infrared (MIR) hyperspectral cameras were recently put on the market. However, their wavelength ranges are smaller and their resolutions are poorer, in comparison with laboratory equipment based on Fourier-Transform Infrared (FTIR). The identification of specific signals of end-of-life polymers for recycling purposes is becoming an important stake since they are very diverse, highly formulated, and more and more used in copolymers and blends, leading to complex waste stocks mainly as WEEE (Waste Electrical and Electronic Equipment). Dark colored plastics are the major part of WEEE, which also contains mainly styrenics (ABS, HIPS and their blends). In addition, styrenics are especially concerned by the need of identification. In this framework, spectral characterizations of ten types of polymers were scrutinized through about eighty pristine and real waste samples. Polymer characteristic signals were aggregated in charts to help rapid and automatized distinction through specific signals, even in limited resolution and frequency ranges.

A bibliometric analysis on waste electrical and electronic equipment research

Waste electrical and electronic equipment (WEEE) contains both toxic and valuable materials. Due to rapid development of information and communication technologies (ICT), a large amount of WEEE have been produced, leading to increasing academic efforts in this field. This study aims to depict the trends and features of WEEE-related studies through a bibliometric analysis. The results show that the total number of WEEE-related publications had sharply increased, with China as the leading country. University of Chinese Academy of Sciences is the most productive WEEE-related research institution, while Mai BX is the most productive author. As such, Waste Management, Journal of Cleaner Production, and Environmental Science & Technology are the most influential journals. The research hotspots of WEEE mainly focus on the recycling and treatment technologies, environmental impacts, and relevant policies of WEEE. By tracing the evolutionary pathway of WEEE research, it is clear that the research frontiers have switched from electronic equipment, extended producer responsibility, sediment, environment and design, risk assessment to life cycle assessment, mobile phone, and behaviors. This study provides valuable insights to those WEEE-related scholars so that they can identify their own research topics and partners. This paper is one of the first studies in WEEE research field that offers critical discussions and suggestions related to research development and future trends, and used visualized tools to present the holistic picture of this field.

Designing a sustainable dynamic collection service for WEEE: an economic and environmental analysis through simulation

The integration of economic and environmental objectives is crucial in the waste collection sector, especially for flows characterized by a high economic value like waste from electric and electronic equipment (WEEE). WEEE needs a complex and flexible reverse logistics system to face high uncertainty and variability of waste flows, while keeping a high efficiency. A few efforts in the literature have focused on planning an efficient collection service on a local scale. In this paper, a simulation-based methodology is adopted to compare different alternatives for a WEEE collection service in Italy. A dynamic collection scheme (i.e. with variable collection frequencies based on the actual level of waste flow) is simulated in two different logistics configurations, i.e. one based on direct connection and one based on an "hub-and-spoke" network. The impact of adopting electric vehicles is also evaluated. Alternatives are compared through economic and environmental key performance indicators to assess the level of sustainability. Results show the advantages of a "hub-and-spoke" configuration with the use of electric vehicles.

Waste of electrical and electronic equipment: Trends and awareness among youths in Lithuania

Waste of electrical and electronic equipment (WEEE) has gained significant attention recently because of increasing consumption and related environmental impacts. This work focuses on Lithuania and analyses the trends of WEEE generation and management during the period 2008-2015. Attitudes and behaviour of students and pupils (main future consumers) regarding WEEE are also determined in this work. The analysis shows that the generation and collection of WEEE in Lithuania have been on the rise since the global economic crisis. In total, approximately 16260 metric tonnes of WEEE were collected in 2015 in Lithuania. Most of the collected WEEE consisted of large home appliances and information technology and telecommunication equipment. In addition, the survey highlights that some small WEEE is still discarded together with municipal waste. Results also report that there is a need for more information about WEEE as such, as well as the need for more collection points and possibly a refund system. The study suggests that those aspects could be of importance for the efficiency of WEEE management systems and related policy implementation.

Examining the Relationships between Factors Influencing Environmental Behaviour among University Students

Education for sustainability may be seen as consisting of four dimensions: sensitivity and attitudes toward the environment, awareness and knowledge of the environment, environmentally friendly actions and participation. A questionnaire was drawn up which includes statements concerning all these dimensions and it was filled out by 674 university students from different majors. Data were analysed statistically and a structural equation model was formed. Results indicate that sensitivity toward or awareness of nature is the basis for the enjoyment of nature. The enjoyment of nature is directly positively related to the intention of support pro-environmental activity and to environmental knowledge. Furthermore, it has a mediational effect on ecological knowledge, concern, or the belief of human dominance over nature. Students who possess global concerns do not accept human dominance and this is related to the intent to support environmental activities. Students were found to form groups: “Sorters.” “Occasional actors” and “Resource savers.” Compared to prior research, due to the additional items concerning environmental sensitivity and awareness in our instrument, we were able to uncover the importance of sensitivity to the enjoyment of nature in the complex model of the relationships between awareness, attitudes, knowledge, concerns and intentions. Ecological knowledge leads to global concerns and, therefore, it should be promoted through science education.

Influence of acrylonitrile butadiene rubber on recyclability of blends prepared from poly(vinyl chloride) and poly(methyl methacrylate)

The current investigation deals with the recycling possibilities of poly(vinyl chloride) and poly(methyl methacrylate) in the presence of acrylonitrile butadiene rubber. Recycled blends of poly(vinyl chloride)/poly(methyl methacrylate) are successfully formed from the plastic constituents, those are recovered from waste computer products. However, lower impact performance of the blend and lower stability of the poly(vinyl chloride) phase in the recycled blend restricts its further usage in industrial purposes. Therefore, effective utilisation acrylonitrile butadiene rubber in a recycled blend was considered for improving mechanical and thermal performance. Incorporation of acrylonitrile butadiene rubber resulted in the improvement in impact performance as well as elongation-at-break of the recycled blend. The optimum impact performance was found in the blend with 9 wt% acrylonitrile butadiene rubber, which shows 363% of enhancement as compared with its parent blend. Moreover, incorporated acrylonitrile butadiene rubber also stabilises the poly(vinyl chloride) phase present in the recycled blend, similarly Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy studies indicate the interactions of various functionalities present in the recycled blend and acrylonitrile butadiene rubber. In addition to this, thermogravimetric analysis indicates the improvement in the thermal stability of the recycled blend after the addition of acrylonitrile butadiene rubber into it. The existence of partial miscibility in the recycled blend was identified using differential scanning calorimetry and scanning electron microscopy.

Application of Life Cycle Assessment on Electronic Waste Management: A Review

Electronic waste is a rich source of both valuable materials and toxic substances. Management of electronic waste is one of the biggest challenges of current worldwide concern. As an effective and prevailing environmental management tool, life cycle assessment can evaluate the environmental performance of electronic waste management activities. Quite a few scientific literatures reporting life cycle assessment of electronic waste management with significant outcomes have been recently published. This paper reviewed the trends, characteristics, research gaps, and challenges of these studies providing detailed information for practitioners involved in electronic waste management. The results showed that life cycle assessment studies were most carried out in Europe, followed by Asia and North America. The research subject of the studies mainly includes monitors, waste printed circuit boards, mobile phones, computers, printers, batteries, toys, dishwashers, and light-emitting diodes. CML was the most widely used life cycle impact assessment method in life cycle assessment studies on electronic waste management, followed by EI99. Furthermore, 40% of the reviewed studies combined with other environmental tools, including life cycle cost, material flow analysis, multi-criteria decision analysis, emergy analysis, and hazard assessment which came to more comprehensive conclusions from different aspects. The research gaps and challenges including uneven distribution of life cycle assessment studies, life cycle impact assessment methods selection, comparison of the results, and uncertainty of the life cycle assessment studies were examined. Although life cycle assessment of electronic waste management facing challenges, their results will play more and more important role in electronic waste management practices.

Heterogeneous nano-Fe/Ca/CaO catalytic ozonation for selective surface hydrophilization of plastics containing brominated and chlorinated flame retardants (B/CFRs): separation from automobile shredder residue by froth flotation

One method of weakening the inherently hydrophobic surface of plastics relevant to flotation separation is heterogeneous nano-Fe/Ca/CaO catalytic ozonation. Nano-Fe/Ca/CaO-catalyzed ozonation for 15 min efficiently decreases the surface hydrophobicity of brominated and chlorinated flame retardant (B/CFR)-containing plastics (such as acrylonitrile-butadienestyrene (ABS), high-impact polystyrene (HIPS), and polyvinyl chloride (PVC)) in automobile shredder residue (ASR) to such an extent that their flotation ability is entirely depressed. Such a hydrophilization treatment also stimulates the ABS, HIPS, and PVC surface roughness, wetting of the surface, and the thermodynamic equilibrium conditions at the surface and ultimately changes surface polarity. SEM-EDS, AFM, and XPS analyses of the PVC and ABS surfaces demonstrated a marked decrease in [Cl/Br] and a significant increase in the number of hydrophilic groups, such as C-O, C=O, and (C=O)-O. Under froth flotation conditions at 50 rpm, about 99.5 % of ABS and 99.5 % of HIPS in ASR samples settled out, resulting in a purity of 98 and 98.5 % for ABS and HIPS in ASR samples, respectively. Furthermore, at 150 rpm, we also obtained 100 % PVC separation in the settled fraction, with 98 % purity in ASR. Total recovery of non-B/CFR-containing plastics reached nearly 100 % in the floating fraction. The amount of nano-Fe/Ca/CaO reagent employed during ozonation is very small, and additional removal of surface contaminants from the recycled ASR plastic surfaces by ozonation makes the developed process simpler, greener, and more effective.

Where next on e-waste in Australia?

For almost two decades waste electrical and electronic equipment, WEEE or e-waste, has been considered a growing problem that has global consequences. The value of recovered materials, primarily in precious and base metals, has prompted some parts of the world to informally and inappropriately process e-waste causing serious environmental and human health issues. Efforts in tackling this issue have been limited and in many ways unsuccessful. The global rates for formal e-waste treatment are estimated to be below the 20% mark, with the majority of end-of-life (EoL) electronic devices still ending up in the landfills or processed through rudimentary means. Industrial confidentiality regarding device composition combined with insufficient reporting requirements has made the task of simply characterizing the problem difficult at a global scale. To address some of these key issues, this paper presents a critical overview of existing statistics and estimations for e-waste in an Australia context, including potential value and environmental risks associated with metals recovery. From our findings, in 2014, on average per person, Australians purchased 35kg of electrical and electronic equipment (EEE) while disposed of 25kg of WEEE, and possessed approximately 320kg of EEE. The total amount of WEEE was estimated at 587kt worth about US$ 370million if all major metals are fully recovered. These results are presented over the period 2010-2014, detailed for major EEE product categories and metals, and followed by 2015-2024 forecast. Our future projection, with the base scenario fixing EEE sales at 35kg per capita, predicts stabilization of e-waste generation in Australia at 28-29kg per capita, with the total amount continuing to grow along with the population growth.

Global responses for recycling waste CRTs in e-waste

The management of used cathode ray tube (CRT) devices is a major problem worldwide due to rapid uptake of the technology and early obsolescence of CRT devices, which is considered an environment hazard if disposed improperly. Previously, their production has grown in step with computer and television demand but later on with rapid technological innovation; TVs and computer screens has been replaced by new products such as Liquid Crystal Displays (LCDs) and Plasma Display Panel (PDPs). This change creates a large volume of waste stream of obsolete CRTs waste in developed countries and developing countries will be becoming major CRTs waste producers in the upcoming years. We studied that there is also high level of trans-boundary movement of these devices as second-hand electronic equipment into developing countries in an attempt to bridge the 'digital divide'. Moreover, the current global production of e-waste is estimated to be '41million tonnes per year' where a major part of the e-waste stream consists of CRT devices. This review article provides a concise overview of world's current CRTs waste scenario, namely magnitude of the demand and processing, current disposal and recycling operations.

Assessing the role of informal sector in WEEE management systems: A System Dynamics approach

Generally being ignored by academia and regulators, the informal sector plays important roles in Waste Electrical and Electronic Equipment (WEEE) management systems, especially in developing countries. This study aims: (1) to capture and model the variety of informal operations in WEEE management systems, (2) to capture the dynamics existing within the informal sector, and (3) to assess the role of the informal sector as the key player in the WEEE management systems, influencing both its future operations and its counterpart, the formal sector. By using System Dynamics as the methodology and India as the reference system, this study is able to explain the reasons behind, on the one hand, the superiority of the informal sector in WEEE management systems and, on the other hand, the failure of the formal systems. Additionally, this study reveals the important role of the second-hand market as the determinant of the rise and fall of the informal sector in the future.

Disassembly properties and material characterisation of household small waste electric and electronic equipment

This paper is focused on characterising small waste electric and electronic equipment, specifically small household appliances, from two different points of views: disassembly properties and material identification. The sample for this characterisation was obtained from a selective collection campaign organised in Castellón de la Plana (Spain). A total amount of 833.7kg (749 units) of small waste electric and electronic equipment was collected, of which 23.3% by weight and 22.4% by units belonged to the subcategory household equipment. This subcategory, composed of appliances such as vacuum cleaners, toasters, sandwich makers, hand blenders, juicers, coffee makers, hairdryers, scales, irons and heaters, was first disassembled in order to analyse different aspects of the disassembly process for each equipment type: type of joints, ease of identification of materials, ease of access to joints for extracting components, ease of separation of components from the whole, uniformity of tools needed for the disassembly process and possibility of reassembly after disassembly. Results show that the most common joints used in these equipment types are snap-fits and screws, although some permanent joints have also been identified. Next, the material composition of each component of each appliance belonging to each equipment type was identified visually and with additional mechanical trials and testing. It can be observed that plastic and electric/electronic components are present in all the equipment types analysed and are also the material fractions that appear with higher percentages in the material composition: 41.1wt% and 39.1wt% for the plastic fraction and electric/electronic components, respectively. The most common plastics are: polypropylene (PP), acrylonitrile butadiene styrene (ABS) and polycarbonate (PC), while the most common electric/electronic components are: cable, plug and printed circuit boards. Results also show that disassembly properties and material characterisation vary widely from one equipment type to another.

Potential reuse of small household waste electrical and electronic equipment: Methodology and case study

This study proposes a general methodology for assessing and estimating the potential reuse of small waste electrical and electronic equipment (sWEEE), focusing on devices classified as domestic appliances. Specific tests for visual inspection, function and safety have been defined for ten different types of household appliances (vacuum cleaner, iron, microwave, toaster, sandwich maker, hand blender, juicer, boiler, heater and hair dryer). After applying the tests, reuse protocols have been defined in the form of easy-to-apply checklists for each of the ten types of appliance evaluated. This methodology could be useful for reuse enterprises, since there is a lack of specific protocols, adapted to each type of appliance, to test its potential of reuse. After applying the methodology, electrical and electronic appliances (used or waste) can be segregated into three categories: the appliance works properly and can be classified as direct reuse (items can be used by a second consumer without prior repair operations), the appliance requires a later evaluation of its potential refurbishment and repair (restoration of products to working order, although with possible loss of quality) or the appliance needs to be finally discarded from the reuse process and goes directly to a recycling process. Results after applying the methodology to a sample of 87.7kg (96 units) show that 30.2% of the appliances have no potential for reuse and should be diverted for recycling, while 67.7% require a subsequent evaluation of their potential refurbishment and repair, and only 2.1% of them could be directly reused with minor cleaning operations. This study represents a first approach to the "preparation for reuse" strategy that the European Directive related to Waste Electrical and Electronic Equipment encourages to be applied. However, more research needs to be done as an extension of this study, mainly related to the identification of the feasibility of repair or refurbishment operations.

A novel method for material characterization of reusable products

Product reuse contributes favorably to waste management and resource recovery by diverting products from terminal disposal to second-hand urban markets. Many organizations with social mission incorporate in their activities the process of reuse, thus making valuable products available to second-hand customers through their thrift stores. Data management and product classification are an important aspect of quantitative analysis of second-hand products circulating through reuse organizations. The New York City Center for Materials Reuse has, for the last 10years, organized the reuse activities of most not for profit organizations, and collected valuable information on the strengths and weaknesses of their operations. One such finding is the casual, and inconsistent approach used by these organizations to keep a record of the level and value of the reuse efforts they undertake. This paper describes a novel methodology developed to standardize record keeping and characterize commonly reused post-consumer products by assessing the outgoing product flow from reuse organizations. The approach groups material composition of individual products into main product categories, creating a simplified method to characterize products. Furthermore, by linking product categories and material composition, the method creates a matrix to help identify the material composition of products handled by reuse organizations. As part of the methodology, whenever adequate data are not available about certain types of products, a process identified as "field characterization study" is proposed and incorporated in the implementation to develop meaningful and useful data on the weight and material composition. Finally, the method incorporates the estimation of the environmental impact of reuse using standard models available through the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency and other worldwide entities. The diversified weight and size of products poses a challenge to the statistical significance of the estimated weights. A case study is presented, illustrating how the proposed methodology can be applied to estimate environmental benefits from the sale of second-hand products in reuse organizations.

Environmental pollution of electronic waste recycling in India: A critical review

The rapid growth of the production of electrical and electronic products has meant an equally rapid growth in the amount of electronic waste (e-waste), much of which is illegally imported to India, for disposal presenting a serious environmental challenge. The environmental impact during e-waste recycling was investigated and metal as well as other pollutants [e.g. polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs), polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs)] were found in excessive levels in soil, water and other habitats. The most e-waste is dealt with as general or crudely often by open burning, acid baths, with recovery of only a few materials of value. As resulted of these process; dioxins, furans, and heavy metals are released and harmful to the surrounding environment, engaged workers, and also residents inhabiting near the sites. The informal e-waste sectors are growing rapidly in the developing countries over than in the developed countries because of cheapest labor cost and week legislations systems. It has been confirmed that contaminates are moving through the food chain via root plant translocation system, to the human body thereby threatening human health. We have suggested some possible solution toward in which plants and microbes combine to remediate highly contaminated sites.

Uncovering the Recycling Potential of "New" WEEE in China

Newly defined categories of WEEE have increased the types of China's regulated WEEE from 5 to 14. Identification of the amounts and valuable-resource components of the "new" WEEE generated is critical to solving the e-waste problem, for both governmental policy decisions and recycling enterprise expansions. This study first estimates and predicts China's new WEEE generation for the period of 2010-2030 using material flow analysis and the lifespan model of the Weibull distribution, then determines the amounts of valuable resources (e.g., base materials, precious metals, and rare-earth minerals) encased annually in WEEE, and their dynamic transfer from in-use stock to waste. Main findings include the following: (i) China will generate 15.5 and 28.4 million tons WEEE in 2020 and 2030, respectively, and has already overtaken the U.S. to become the world's leading producer of e-waste; (ii) among all the types of WEEE, air conditioners, desktop personal computers, refrigerators, and washing machines contribute over 70% of total WEEE by weight. The two categories of EEE-electronic devices and electrical appliances-each contribute about half of total WEEE by weight; (iii) more and more valuable resources have been transferred from in-use products to WEEE, significantly enhancing the recycling potential of WEEE from an economic perspective; and (iv) WEEE recycling potential has been evolving from ∼16 (10-22) billion US$ in 2010, to an anticipated ∼42 (26-58) billion US$ in 2020 and ∼73.4 (44.5-103.4) billion US$ by 2030. All the obtained results can improve the knowledge base for closing the loop of WEEE recycling, and contribute to governmental policy making and the recycling industry's business development.

Management of waste electrical and electronic equipment in Romania: A mini-review

Around the world there are growing concerns for waste electrical and electronic equipment. This is motivated by the harmful effects of waste electrical and electronic equipment on the environment, but also by the perspectives of materials recovery. Differences between countries regarding waste electrical and electronic equipment management are notable in the European Union. Romania is among the countries that have made significant efforts to comply with European Union regulations, but failed reaching the collection target. The article presents a mini review of the waste electrical and electronic equipment management system in Romania, based on legislation and policy documents, statistical data, research studies and reports published by national and international organisations. The article debates subjects like legislative framework, the electrical and electronic equipment Romanian market, the waste electrical and electronic equipment collection system, waste electrical and electronic equipment processing and waste electrical and electronic equipment behaviour. The recast of the European directive brings new challenges to national authorities and to other stakeholders involved in the waste electrical and electronic equipment management. Considering the fact that Romania has managed a collection rate of roughly 1 kg capita(-1) in the last years, the new higher collection targets established by the waste electrical and electronic equipment Directive offer a serious challenge for the management system. Therefore, another aim of the article is to highlight the positive and negative aspects in the Romanian waste electrical and electronic equipment field, in order to identify the flows that should be corrected and the opportunities that could help improve this system to the point of meeting the European standards imposed by the European Directive.

Scrap automotive electronics: A mini-review of current management practices

End-of-life vehicles, together with waste from electric and electronic equipment, are known as an important source of secondary raw materials. For many years, their recovery has allowed the restoring of great amounts of metals for new cars production. This article provides a comprehensive mini-review on the end-of-life vehicles recycling topic between 2000 and 2014, with a particular focus on automotive electronics recycling. In fact, in the last years, experts focused their attention on a better exploitation of automotive shredder residue fraction, but not sufficiently on eventual electronic scraps embedded in it. Hence, studies assessing the value embedded in these scraps are rarely available in literature, causing an important gap in both recycling policies and research. The fact that, at present, the management of electronic control units (the most valuable component among automotive electronic equipment) is, as yet, off the radar in both end-of-life vehicles and waste from electric and electronic equipment Directives demonstrates the theory. Of course, their recycling would not contribute in a relevant way to reach the weighted-based recycling and recovery targets characterising current regulations, but would be very important under a critical raw materials recovery view. Results coming from the literature analysis confirm these assumptions.