Rape Myths and the Cross-Cultural Adaptation of the Illinois Rape Myth Acceptance Scale in China

Development of the Vietnamese Rape Myths Acceptance Scales: A Web-Based Survey of Young Adults

Rape myths-false but widely held beliefs that serve to deny and justify sexual aggression-present a major barrier to reporting and prevention of sexual violence in Vietnam and globally. Based on a parent study aimed at reducing sexual violence at two universities in Hanoi, we developed and assessed a contextualized measure of rape myths among young people in Vietnam. Items from previously validated rape myth acceptance (RMA) scales and data from qualitative research informed the development of 50 items, which were administered to Vietnamese 18-24-year-olds (n = 2,756 total, n = 1,798 cisgender women) via an anonymous link in February 2021. We used factor analysis to explore and test factor structure and multi-group factor analysis to assess measurement equivalence across gender. We calculated item-level discrimination and difficulty parameters and visualized information curves using item response theory analysis, informing the development of a short form. Four hypothesized subconstructs identified in the qualitative data emerged as factors: (1) "He didn't mean to"; (2) "She asked for it"; (3) "It wasn't really rape"; and (4) "Rape is a deviant event." A fifth factor, "She didn't protect herself," included four items from formative data. Confirming formative findings and prior literature, cisgender women had lower RMA than cisgender men, particularly on items related to victim-blaming. The Vietnamese Rape Myths Acceptance Scales were internally consistent and equivalent between cisgender men and women, capturing elements specific to the Vietnamese context and providing a tool for campus climate surveys and evaluations of sexual violence prevention programs.

Relatively Unworthy Victims? Middle-Aged Women as Rape Survivors

This study examines how the age of female survivors impacts public perceptions of rape in China. In our online survey experiment, participants consider rape as less serious when the survivor is a middle-aged woman compared to other groups of women (younger, older, or age unknown). Participants also request shorter sentencing when the survivor is a middle-aged woman than a younger woman. In China, moral codes surrounding chastity and respect for elders lead to greater emotional responses toward rape against younger and older survivors than middle-aged survivors. Our study expands studies of rape perception by theorizing public attitudes toward middle-aged survivors.

Association Between Pornography Use, Sexism, and Sexual Violence Myth Acceptance in Chinese Men: The Moderating Effect of Perceived Realism

Pornography is spreading more and more widely due to websites, applications, and social media. It has attracted the attention of a large number of researchers who are sometimes divided on the impact of pornography. However, the relationship between pornography and sexual violence myths has received little scholarly attention in China. Based on the 3AM model and previous research, the study examined hostile sexism (HS) as a mediator and perceived realism as a moderator in the links between pornography use frequency and sexual violence myths in a sample of Chinese men (N = 376). The results showed that although pornography use and sexual violence myths did not directly correlate with one another, there was an indirect correlation through HS. Further, perceived realism moderated the relationship between pornography use frequency and HS. When participants' perceived realism was high (i.e. +1 SD), the indirect effect of HS was strong; when participants' perceived realism was low (i.e. -1 SD), the indirect effect of HS was not significant. Taken together, the findings reveal the cross-cultural consistency of the 3AM theory in China, and the findings provide new insight into the potential impact of pornography on sexism. At the same time, the results suggest an increase in appropriate education and interventions to reduce the incidence of sexual violence.

Exploring the Underlying Constructs of Rape-Related Cognition Scales and Their Relationships With Sexual Aggression

Rape-related cognitions (typically defined as encompassing any number of cognitive constructs) are thought to play a role in sexual aggression. However, rape-related cognition scales often assess these cognitive constructs as one. The purpose of this study is to explore the factor structure of these measures using a sample of 191 community men. We found that items from the Rape Myth Acceptance, RAPE, and Illinois Rape Myth Acceptance (IRMA) scales formed one factor, which was significantly related to sexual aggression. We further found that four and six IRMA subscales were significantly related to past and likelihood of sexual aggression, respectively. Additionally, one IRMA subscale was independently related to past and likelihood of sexual aggression. The results are discussed in terms of implications and direction for future research.

Supportive Interventions of Chinese Police in Domestic Violence: Do Officer Knowledge and Training Matter?

Policing domestic violence (DV) poses significant challenges in China due to cultural, legal, and organizational complexities. Policing DV in China favors mediation over assertive interventions, complicating law enforcement's role. While previous research has focused on coercive interventions by Chinese police, there is limited information on non-coercive, supportive approaches. This study investigates the relationship between police officers' knowledge and training regarding the Anti-DV law and their willingness to provide supportive services to DV victims in China. It also considers various individual and organizational factors. The data used in this study are derived from the Policing DV in China project, with a sample of 1,353 respondents who had experience dealing with DV cases within the past 3 years. The study focuses on three dependent variables representing supportive approaches to DV cases: Referral, Counseling, and Protection orders. Independent variables include officers' knowledge of the Anti-DV law and agency training. Control variables include the use of body-worn cameras (BWC) and attitudes toward Violence Tolerance, Male Dominance, and Gender Equality. Additionally, demographic variables, working environment, length of service, and police rank are considered. The analytical approach involves a three-step strategy, incorporating descriptive, bivariate analyses, and regression analyses. The results are interpreted using odds ratios and average marginal effects, and statistical software such as SPSS by IBM and R by Open-Source Model is utilized for data analysis. Key findings indicate that more than half of the officers referred intimate partner violence survivors to shelters and assisted victims in filing protection orders. Counseling practices varied across provinces and between male and female officers. Agency training and the use of BWC were positively associated with non-coercive and supportive approaches, while knowledge of the DV Act, male dominance score, and gender equality score did not predict the use of such approaches. Demographic characteristics, including police rank, length of service, and province of employment, influenced the utilization of non-coercive and supportive approaches. This study examines the challenges faced by Chinese police officers when responding to DV cases and their willingness to provide supportive interventions. The study highlights the complexities surrounding the initiation of protection orders due to officers' legal knowledge and discretion. The study emphasizes the importance of police support in addressing DV in China and the role of agency training in promoting non-coercive responses. It highlights regional variations in police support and underscores the need for addressing disparities in service provision across different provinces.

Sexting Victimization Among Dating App Users: A Comparison of U.S. and Chinese College Students

The widespread use of digital technology and devices has fundamentally transformed people's social life in recent decades, particularly in interpersonal relationships. Two popular social phenomena elucidate how social connections and interactions have dramatically evolved due to technological advancement. Sexting has surfaced as a popular way of getting attention or flirting among young populations over the past decade. Online dating also has emerged as a viable avenue for people to seek interpersonal romantic and/or sexual relationships. Based on survey data collected from two Chinese universities and one U.S. university, this study links sexting and online dating by comparatively assessing the prevalence of sexting victimization and factors influencing such victimization among young online daters. Bivariate and multiple analyses reveal that American college students are more inclined than their Chinese counterparts to be victims of receiving sexts. Chinese students with higher degrees of rape myth acceptance are more likely to experience sexting victimization, but such an association does not exist among U.S. students. Internet-related activities were only weakly connected to sexting victimization among college students. LGBT young adults, regardless of their country affiliation, are at a higher risk for sexting misconduct. Female and younger American students were more likely to experience sexting victimization, whereas Chinese students in a romantic relationship were more inclined to experience sexting victimization. If possible, future research should employ a random sampling strategy to draw a larger number of college students from different types of universities in different regions. Future studies should include other theoretically relevant variables, such as self-control and opportunity variables, into the sexting victimization research.

Prison Culture as Rape Supportive: Applying Importation and Deprivation Models to Examine Inmate Beliefs

While research examining sexual violence in prison has increased over the past 15 years, relatively scant attention has been paid to rape supportive beliefs and the factors influencing inmate adherence to these beliefs. Given the demonstrated role from studies outside the prison context that rape supportive beliefs have on sexual violence, important parallels can be drawn from studying the inmate population. Importation and deprivation models have been used to explain how inmates adapt to prison life-whether attitudes and behaviors are imported from their lives outside prison or are developed in prison due to the conditions of incarceration. Using a sample of male and female inmates (n = 875) from a large state prison system in the southern United States, the researchers explored the degree to which inmate rape supportive beliefs (IRSB) were influenced by variables indicative of importation or deprivation models of prison adaption. Findings revealed greater support for importation variables among both male and female inmates. With some variation, measures such as gender, age, ethnicity, and education were significant in explaining IRSB, similar to findings of studies on rape supportive beliefs among noninmate samples. Because these beliefs can manifest in problematic attitudes and behaviors among inmates, such as prison sexual violence and the underreporting of such violence, it is important that correctional administrators understand this relationship and take steps to lessen IRSB. Since IRSB largely correlate with factors unrelated to conditions of confinement, efforts to educate and sensitize inmates to prison sexual violence can replicate best practices based on populations outside of prisons.

Assessing Rape Myth Acceptance: A Contribution to Italian Validation of the Measure for Assessing Subtle Rape Myth (SRMA-IT)

The study aimed to validate the Italian version of the Measure for Assessing Subtle Rape Myths developed by McMahon and Farmer. A sample of 3,915 university students (70.8% female) completed the questionnaire. After an exploratory factor analysis, a confirmatory factor analysis tested the resulting four-factor structure of the Italian Subtle Rape Myth Acceptance (SRMA-IT) Scale ("She Asked for It"; "He Didn't Mean To"; "It Wasn't Really Rape"; and "She Lied"), consistent with McMahon and Farmer's initial hypothesis. The Italian validation did not include items related to intoxication. Internal consistency of the subscales was good (α from .78 to .90). Convergent validity between all subscales and System Justification-Gender was detected: A strong relationship was observed (r is from .19 to .33; p < .001). The independent-sample T test then showed that women accepted all four rape myths significantly less than men: Effect size is more than moderate for the myth "She Asked for It" (Cohen's d = .60) and between small and moderate for the other myths (d is from .35 to .42). Acceptance of rape myths is often associated with higher men's proclivity to rape and with tendency to raped women's double victimization (they can be not believed or blamed when they disclose the rape). Having a validated instrument to measure rape myth acceptance can enhance empirical research on this topic and help to develop interventions of prevention both for men in the society and for the first responders to disclosures, also sustaining a culture of respect and of contrast to violence.

Chinese University Students' Attitudes Toward Rape Myth Acceptance: The Role of Gender, Sexual Stereotypes, and Adversarial Sexual Beliefs

The present study constructs and tests models that examine the relations between variables of "gender," "sex role stereotyping," and "adversarial sexual beliefs" on rape myth acceptance. The sample is 975 Chinese university students from seven universities in China. Measures include Chinese Rape Myth Acceptance (CRMA), Sex Role Stereotyping (SRS) Scale, and Adversarial Sexual Beliefs (ASB). We use structural equation modeling to investigate whether gender directly affects the acceptance of rape myth, or that these influences are mediated by SRS and ASB, after controlling for several demographic characteristics. Results suggest that SRS and ASB have a direct effect on rape myth acceptance. Gender has no direct effect on rape myth acceptance in three out of the four models, but it significantly (β = -.02, p < .05) predicts the acceptance of rape-violence myth. We also discuss the implications and limitations of the study.

Rape Myths Among University Men and Women in Vietnam: A Qualitative Study

Sexual violence is a persistent, underreported threat to the well-being of women and girls worldwide. In Vietnam, as elsewhere, myths and misconceptions around rape and other forms of sexual violence present a major barrier to reporting and prevention. Based on qualitative research from a parent study aimed at reducing sexual violence perpetration at universities in Vietnam, we sought to characterize commonly held myths among university students that may contribute to the perpetration and justification of such behaviors. Our analysis drew on focus group discussions with men (n = 69) and semi-structured interviews with men (n = 12) and women (n = 9) recruited from two universities in Hanoi. Conducted in April and May of 2018, interviews covered topics including gender norms, dating relationships, consent, and sexual violence, whereas focus groups conducted in October 2018 were designed to assess reactions to an existing sexual violence prevention program. Thematic analysis of interview and focus group transcripts revealed that myths and misconceptions about sexual violence persist among university-aged men and women. Chief among these were that rape results mainly from men's uncontrollable desire, that victims provoke rape by their "reckless" behavior, such as drinking or dressing provocatively, that "real" rape is characterized by physical force from the perpetrator and "fierce resistance" on the part of the victim, and that rape occurs only under a narrow set of circumstances. Although men and women endorsed most myths equally, justification of rape through victim blaming featured much less in women's narratives than in men's. Myths concerning false rape allegations, observed in Western populations, were not considered relevant to Vietnamese students. Findings informed the development of a contextualized rape myths acceptance scale for testing and use in Vietnam. A nuanced understanding of salient rape myths among male and female students may also inform university-based efforts to prevent sexual violence.

Sexual Victimization in Adulthood and Associated Factors Among Men and Women: Cross-Sectional Evidence from Mainland China

Limited empirical research addresses sexual victimization and related factors among the general adult population in China. To address this gap, we explored the association between sexual victimization in adulthood and associated factors (unwanted sexual experiences [USE] before age 18, binge drinking prior to sex, hooking up, violent pornography use, awareness and perceived behavioral control of consent, and sexual refusal assertiveness) among a convenience Chinese sample. A cross-sectional study was performed in September 2020 among 898 screened men and women from 29 provinces in mainland China. Overall, 52.5% of men and 57.9% of women experienced sexual victimization at least once in adulthood. Men and women differed in the severity of sexual victimization in adulthood, with the mean severity scores of women being significantly higher than those of men. Hierarchical ordinal logistic regression revealed that, after considering control variables, correlates of severity of sexual victimization in adulthood included gender (OR 3.17, 95% CI 2.30-4.40), severity of USE before age 18 (OR 2.28, 95% CI 1.92-2.73), binge drinking prior to sex (OR 2.52, 95% CI 1.83-3.49), hook-up history (OR 2.24, 95% CI 1.49-3.39), violent pornography use (OR 1.07, 95% CI 1.04-1.09), lack of perceived behavioral control of communicating consent (OR 1.04, 95% CI 1.01-1.07), and sexual refusal assertiveness (OR 0.92, 95% CI 0.89-0.95). These findings indicate that early adverse sexual experiences, potential risky sexual behaviors, violent pornography use, and beliefs about consent and refusal may play an important role in predicting sexual victimization among Chinese adults.

Empowering Chinese College Students to Prevent Sexual Assault in Post-MeToo Era: An Empirical Study of the Bystander Intervention Approach

MeToo movement unveiled the high prevalence of sexual assault in Chinese colleges. To create a safer environment, many Chinese universities require students to engage in bystander intervention sessions, which encourages students to assess, identify, and interrupt the harmful situation. Drawing upon health belief model and theory of planned behavior, this study tests the effects of bystander intervention programs, exposure to news reports on MeToo movement, and institutional responses to sexual violence events on bystander intervention intention and behaviors. The results of an online survey (N = 814) indicated that bystander intervention programs were effective in changing attendees' perceived benefits, subjective norms, and bystander self-efficacy, which, in turn, led to increased bystander intervention intention and actual behaviors. Moreover, exposure to MeToo movement reports and institutional responses to sexual assault events were significant predictors of bystander intervention intention and behaviors via the mediation of perceived benefits, perceived costs, and subjective norms. The results provide valuable implications for developing effective bystander intervention programs in Chinese college communities.

Migrant Women's Help-Seeking Decisions and Use of Support Resources for Intimate Partner Violence in China

In China, women who domestically relocate from rural or less developed regions to major cities are at a higher risk for intimate partner violence (IPV) than their non-migrant counterparts. Few studies have focused on Chinese domestic migrant women's help-seeking for IPV and their use of different sources of support. The present study aimed to identify factors that influence migrant women's help-seeking decisions. In addition, we also examined factors that contribute to migrant women's use of diverse sources of support for IPV. A sample of 280 migrant women victimized by IPV in the past year at the time of the survey was drawn from a larger cross-sectional study conducted in four major urban cities in China, including Beijing, Shanghai, Guangzhou, and Shenzhen. Using a multinomial logistic regression model and a zero-inflated Poisson model, we found that factors influencing migrant women's help-seeking decisions and their use of diverse sources of support included socioeconomic factors, IPV type, relationship-related factors, knowledge of China's first anti-Domestic Violence Law, and perception of the effectiveness of current policies. We discuss implications for future research and interventions.

Rape Myth Acceptance in Contemporary Times: A Comparative Study of University Students in India and the United Kingdom

Much of the literature on rape, victim blaming, and rape myth acceptance is focused on the United States, and there is a general dearth of such scholarly activity in other countries. This article offers insights on university students' perspectives in two new country contexts-India and the United Kingdom. A total of 693 students contributed to the data collection for this study. Rape myth acceptance was fairly low for both countries, however, students in India were more likely to endorse rape myths. Several demographic characteristics were significant for rape myth acceptance in each country. This study makes an important contribution to the extant literature to address paucity of knowledge and promote understandings to help develop country-specific and appropriate policy, practice, and education and awareness programs. In particular, the study provides novel comparative findings on rape myth acceptance in new country contexts to help advance academic thinking in this area of work.

Predicting Bystander Intention to Intervene: The Role of Gender-Specific System Justification and Rape Myth Acceptance for Men and Women

The relationship between rape myth acceptance, gender-specific system justification (GSJ), and bystander intention to intervene has often been studied on a one-dimensional basis, without separating the four dimensions of the acceptance of rape myths. The current study analyzes the relationship between the acceptance of rape myths, GSJ, and bystander intention to intervene, and explores whether the relationships operate differently for men and women. The sample was 3,966 university students: 2,962 from the University of Turin and 1,004 from the Politecnico of Turin; 71.2% women and 28.8% men; average age of 22.61 years. After descriptive analyses, independent sample T-test, and bivariate correlations, a model where the acceptance of four rape myths ("She asked for it"; "He didn't mean to"; "It wasn't really rape"; "She lied") mediated the relationship between GSJ and bystander intention to intervene was tested on the whole sample and then separately on women and men. A bootstrapping procedure was applied. Our data show that for both men and women, GSJ was related to the four rape myths, whereas women and men differed on the relationship between acceptance of rape myths and bystander intention to intervene: only the dimension "She asked for it" was significant for both groups; the dimension "It wasn't really rape" was significant only for the men. Focusing on the differences in women and men regarding acceptance of rape myths can be fruitful for a theoretical deepening of the field and may inform the development of more successful prevention programs.

Enough of This Nonsense! Rape Is Rape: A Malaysian Perspective

There is an average of five rape cases reported in Malaysia on a daily basis. The problem lies not in the hands of an individual or a few misogynistic men but in society as a whole. It lies in the mind-set of the people and every one of us taking part in rape culture by endorsing rape myths. Rape myth acceptance within the Malaysian society encourages sexual assaults or sexual violence. Some of the popular rape myths are the victim’s choice of clothing, emotional reactions of victims, presence of physical injuries, rape happens between strangers, women lie about rape, and men cannot be raped. These most common rape myths are discussed and then debunked. Subsequently, the aftermath of rape is explained. Proactive actions against rape are also presented as many of the existing school-based programs against rape are lopsided as women are taught on how to avoid rape instead of men being taught to respect women and prevent rape. This article aims to serve as an eye-opener for Malaysian counselors, psychologists, educators, and society as a whole to build up their knowledge, skills, and experience when working or dealing with rape victims.

Information Communication Technologies and Intimate Partner Violence in China

Although a substantial number of studies have investigated factors that influenced intimate partner violence (IPV), very few have assessed the connection between the use of information and communication technology (ICT) and such violence. Using survey data collected from over 400 women in a large Chinese city, this study explored how the involvement of various ICT-related activities affects Chinese women's experiences with psychological, physical, and sexual abuse. We found that some forms of media usage and online activities, such as times spent on paper books and Internet and browsing entertainment and sports news as well as watching movies and TVs online, were linked to a higher or lower likelihood of being a victim of IPV. Feelings of loneliness and helplessness were associated with more IPV victimization experiences. Married women were less likely to experience IPV, whereas working women were subject to greater IPV.

Southern African Social Work Students’ Acceptance of Rape Myths

Despite numerous interventions to promote gender equality, sub-Saharan Africa has one of the highest prevalence rates of non-partner sexual assault in the world, thus constituting a major social and public health issue in the region. As social workers frequently provide services to this population, an exploratory cross-sectional study was conducted to explore rape myth acceptance among undergraduate social work students studying in Namibia. Findings revealed the positive influence of social work education in reducing rape myth acceptance, as well as highlighting the influence of age, gender, country of origin, self-identification as a feminist, and religiosity on rape myth acceptance among this population.