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Bianculli RH, Mase JD, Schulz MD. Antiviral Polymers: Past Approaches and Future Possibilities. Macromolecules 2020. [DOI: 10.1021/acs.macromol.0c01273] [Citation(s) in RCA: 48] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/22/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Rachel H. Bianculli
- Department of Chemistry, Macromolecules Innovation Institute (MII), Virginia Tech, Blacksburg, Virginia 24061, United States
| | - Jonathan D. Mase
- Department of Chemistry, Macromolecules Innovation Institute (MII), Virginia Tech, Blacksburg, Virginia 24061, United States
| | - Michael D. Schulz
- Department of Chemistry, Macromolecules Innovation Institute (MII), Virginia Tech, Blacksburg, Virginia 24061, United States
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Yuan W, Pan Y, Zhang X, Liang P, Zhang J, Jiao W, Shao H. Direct and highly stereoselective synthesis of quinolizidine iminosugars promoted by l-proline-Et 3N. Org Biomol Chem 2018; 16:9230-9236. [PMID: 30483692 DOI: 10.1039/c8ob01953c] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
Abstract
A mild and effective method for the synthesis of polyhydroxylated quinolizidine iminosugars is described. The Mannich-type reaction of iminosugar C-glycosides with aldehyde in the presence of l-proline-Et3N provides polyhydroxylated quinolizidine iminosugars, and desired products as the potential glucosidase inhibitors were obtained in good to excellent yields with excellent stereoselectivity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wen Yuan
- Natural Products Research Centre, Chengdu Institute of Biology, Chinese Academy of Science, Chengdu, China.
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Konopka K, Davis BR, Larsen CE, Düzgüneş N. Anionic Liposomes Inhibit Human Immunodeficiency Virus Type 1 (HIV-1) Infectivity in CD4+ A3.01 and H9 Cells. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2016. [DOI: 10.1177/095632029300400308] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
Immunodeficiency viruses undergo fusion with liposomes containing anionic phospholipids (Larsen etal., 1990). We have investigated the effect of liposomes composed of cardiolipin, phosphatidylserine or phosphatidylinositol, on the infectivity of three strains of HIV-1 in A3.01 and H9 cells, measured by p24 (gag) production in the medium. The infectivity of HIV-1 in A3.01 or H9 cells was inhibited by the presence of cardiolipin liposomes during a 2 h infection period, with IC50's of 23.0, 4.8, and 5.0 μM phospholipid, respectively, for the different strains. Liposomes composed of phosphatidylserine or phosphatidylinositol were ineffective under similar conditions. However, prolonged pre-incubation of the virus with these liposomes also inhibited infectivity. Inhibition of virus binding to cells could not account for the inhibition of infectivity. We propose that the fusion products of HIV-1 and anionic liposomes are impaired in their ability to fuse with the plasma membrane.
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Affiliation(s)
- K. Konopka
- Department of Microbiology, University of the Pacific, School of Dentistry, San Francisco, CA 94115-2399, USA
- Cancer Research Institute, and 4Department of Pharmaceutical Chemistry, University of California, San Francisco, CA 94143-0128, USA
| | - B. R. Davis
- Medical Research Institute, California Pacific Medical Center, San Francisco, CA 94115, USA
| | - C. E. Larsen
- Cancer Research Institute, and 4Department of Pharmaceutical Chemistry, University of California, San Francisco, CA 94143-0128, USA
| | - N. Düzgüneş
- Department of Microbiology, University of the Pacific, School of Dentistry, San Francisco, CA 94115-2399, USA
- Cancer Research Institute, and 4Department of Pharmaceutical Chemistry, University of California, San Francisco, CA 94143-0128, USA
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Cushman M, Wang P, Reymen D, Esté J, Witvrouw M, Neyts J, De Clercq E. Anti-HIV and anti-HCMV Activities of New Aurintricarboxylic Acid Analogues. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2016. [DOI: 10.1177/095632029500600307] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
A variety of aurintricarboxylic acid (ATA) polymer analogues were prepared by substituting certain salicylic acid derivatives and carbonyl compounds for salicylic acid and formaldehyde in the ATA polymerization reaction. The new polymers were evaluated for prevention of the cytopathic effects of human immunodeficiency virus (HIV-1 and HIV-2) in MT-4 cell culture, HIV-1 in CEM cell culture, and human cytomegalovirus (HCMV) in HEL cell culture. The abilities of the analogues to inhibit syncytium formation between HIV-1- or HIV-2-infected HUT-78 cells and uninfected MOLT-4 cells were also evaluated. Several of the new analogues were found to be equipotent with ATA and dextran sulfate against HIV-1, HIV-2 and HCMV. The anti-HIV potencies of the new substances paralleled their activities against HCMV. The antiviral activities of the new analogues probably result from inhibition of virion binding to the cell membrane.
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Affiliation(s)
- M. Cushman
- Department of Medicinal Chemistry and Pharmacognosy, School of Pharmacy and Pharmacal Sciences, Purdue University, West Lafayette, IN 47907, USA
| | - P. Wang
- Department of Medicinal Chemistry and Pharmacognosy, School of Pharmacy and Pharmacal Sciences, Purdue University, West Lafayette, IN 47907, USA
| | - D. Reymen
- Rega Institute for Medical Research, Katholieke Universiteit Leuven, Minderbroedersstraat 10, B-3000 Leuven, Belgium
| | - J. Esté
- Rega Institute for Medical Research, Katholieke Universiteit Leuven, Minderbroedersstraat 10, B-3000 Leuven, Belgium
| | - M. Witvrouw
- Rega Institute for Medical Research, Katholieke Universiteit Leuven, Minderbroedersstraat 10, B-3000 Leuven, Belgium
| | - J. Neyts
- Rega Institute for Medical Research, Katholieke Universiteit Leuven, Minderbroedersstraat 10, B-3000 Leuven, Belgium
| | - E. De Clercq
- Rega Institute for Medical Research, Katholieke Universiteit Leuven, Minderbroedersstraat 10, B-3000 Leuven, Belgium
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Judd DA, Schinazi RF, Hill CL. Relationship of the Molecular Size and Charge Density of Polyoxometalates to Their anti-gp120-CD4-binding Activity. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2016. [DOI: 10.1177/095632029400500609] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
The ability of several classes of polyoxometalates to inhibit the interaction between HIV-1 gp120 and CD4 was assessed. No clear relationship was found between binding inhibition and the negative charge density on the anion portion of the polyoxometalate. However, a weak correlation was found with molecular size. There was a molecular weight threshold of 3800 g mol-1 above which no significant increase in potency was gained; the binding inhibition was nearly quantitative above this molecular weight.
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Affiliation(s)
- D. A. Judd
- Department of Chemistry, Emory University, Atlanta, GA 30322, USA
| | - R. F. Schinazi
- Department of Pediatrics, Emory University, Atlanta, GA 30322, USA
- Veterans Affairs Medical Centre, Decatur, GA 30033, USA
| | - C. L. Hill
- Department of Chemistry, Emory University, Atlanta, GA 30322, USA
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Singh P, Manna SK, Panda G. Synthesis of polyhydroxylated indolizidines and piperidines from Garner's aldehyde: total synthesis of (−)-swainsonine, (+)-1,2-di-epi-swainsonine, (+)-8,8a-di-epi-castanospermine, pentahydroxy indolizidines, (−)-1-deoxynojirimycin, (−)-1-deoxy-altro-nojirimycin, and related diversity. Tetrahedron 2014. [DOI: 10.1016/j.tet.2013.11.074] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
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7
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Kumar KSA, Rathee JS, Subramanian M, Chattopadhyay S. Divergent Synthesis of 4-epi-Fagomine, 3,4-Dihydroxypipecolic Acid, and a Dihydroxyindolizidine and Their β-Galactosidase Inhibitory and Immunomodulatory Activities. J Org Chem 2013; 78:7406-13. [DOI: 10.1021/jo400448p] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/10/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- K. S. Ajish Kumar
- Bio-Organic Division, Bhabha Atomic Research Centre, Mumbai 400085, India
| | - J. S. Rathee
- Bio-Organic Division, Bhabha Atomic Research Centre, Mumbai 400085, India
| | - M. Subramanian
- Bio-Organic Division, Bhabha Atomic Research Centre, Mumbai 400085, India
| | - S. Chattopadhyay
- Bio-Organic Division, Bhabha Atomic Research Centre, Mumbai 400085, India
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Wang N, Zhang LH, Ye XS. A new synthetic access to bicyclic polyhydroxylated alkaloid analogues from pyranosides. Org Biomol Chem 2010; 8:2639-49. [DOI: 10.1039/b923180c] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
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9
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Artan M, Karadeniz F, Karagozlu MZ, Kim MM, Kim SK. Anti-HIV-1 activity of low molecular weight sulfated chitooligosaccharides. Carbohydr Res 2009; 345:656-62. [PMID: 20117763 DOI: 10.1016/j.carres.2009.12.017] [Citation(s) in RCA: 82] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/27/2009] [Revised: 12/11/2009] [Accepted: 12/17/2009] [Indexed: 10/20/2022]
Abstract
Chitooligosaccharides are nontoxic and water-soluble compounds obtained by enzymatic degradation of chitosan, which is derived from chitin by a deacetylation process. Chitooligosaccharides possess broad range of activities such as antitumour, antifungal, antibacterial activities. Sulfated chitooligosaccharides (SCOSs) with different molecular weights were synthesized by a random sulfation reaction. In the present study, anti-HIV-1 properties of SCOSs and the impact of molecular weight on their inhibitory activity were investigated. SCOS III (MW 3-5 kDa) was found to be the most effective compound to inhibit HIV-1 replication. At nontoxic concentrations, SCOS III exhibited remarkable inhibitory activities on HIV-1-induced syncytia formation (EC(50) 2.19 microg/ml), lytic effect (EC(50) 1.43 microg/ml), and p24 antigen production (EC(50) 4.33 microg/ml and 7.76 microg/ml for HIV-1(RF) and HIV-1(Ba-L), respectively). In contrast, unsulfated chitooligosaccharides showed no activity against HIV-1. Furthermore, it was found that SCOS III blocked viral entry and virus-cell fusion probably via disrupting the binding of HIV-1 gp120 to CD4 cell surface receptor. These results suggest that sulfated chitooligosaccharides represent novel candidates for the development of anti-HIV-1 agent.
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Affiliation(s)
- Murat Artan
- Department of Chemistry, Pukyong National University, Busan 608-737, Republic of Korea
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10
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Concise and divergent total synthesis of swainsonine, 7-alkyl swainsonines, and 2,8a-diepilentiginosine via a chiral heterocyclic enaminoester intermediate. Tetrahedron 2008. [DOI: 10.1016/j.tet.2008.03.080] [Citation(s) in RCA: 34] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
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11
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Gonçalves AG, Noseda MD, Duarte MER, Grindley TB. Semisynthesis of Long-Chain Alkyl Ether Derivatives of Sulfated Oligosaccharides via Dibutylstannylene Acetal Intermediates. J Org Chem 2007; 72:9896-904. [DOI: 10.1021/jo701413y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Alan G. Gonçalves
- Department of Chemistry, Dalhousie University, Halifax, NS, Canada, B3H 4J3, and Biochemistry and Molecular Biology Department, P.O. Box 19046, Federal University of Paraná, Curitiba, Brazil
| | - Miguel D. Noseda
- Department of Chemistry, Dalhousie University, Halifax, NS, Canada, B3H 4J3, and Biochemistry and Molecular Biology Department, P.O. Box 19046, Federal University of Paraná, Curitiba, Brazil
| | - M. E. R. Duarte
- Department of Chemistry, Dalhousie University, Halifax, NS, Canada, B3H 4J3, and Biochemistry and Molecular Biology Department, P.O. Box 19046, Federal University of Paraná, Curitiba, Brazil
| | - T. Bruce Grindley
- Department of Chemistry, Dalhousie University, Halifax, NS, Canada, B3H 4J3, and Biochemistry and Molecular Biology Department, P.O. Box 19046, Federal University of Paraná, Curitiba, Brazil
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12
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Jiang XP, Cheng Y, Shi GF, Kang ZM. A Versatile Strategy for Divergent and Diastereoselective Synthesis of Natural Product-Like Polyhydroxylated Indolizidines. J Org Chem 2007; 72:2212-5. [PMID: 17298097 DOI: 10.1021/jo0624290] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
A general and versatile method for the divergent and diastereoselective synthesis of polyhydroxylated indolizidines has been established. The annulation reactions of a readily available enantiopure dihydroxylated cyclic secondary enamine with alpha,beta-unsaturated carboxylates including methyl acrylate, methyl crotonate, methyl 2-hexenoate, allenoate, and dimethyl acetylenedicarboxylate and with malonyl chloride produced hexahydro- or tetrahydro-5-indolizinone-8-carboxylates in high yields. The resulting 5-indolizinone derivatives were converted into diverse polyhydroxylated indolizidines in good yields through practical hydrogenation and reduction reactions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xiao-Ping Jiang
- Chemistry Department, Beijing Normal University, Beijing 100875, China
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Meerbach A, Neyts J, Balzarini J, Helbig B, De Clercq E, Wutzler P. In vitro activity of polyhydroxycarboxylates against herpesviruses and HIV. Antivir Chem Chemother 2001; 12:337-45. [PMID: 12018678 DOI: 10.1177/095632020101200603] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
The antiviral activity of 17 polyhydroxycarboxylates derived from phenolic compounds was evaluated against herpesviruses and HIV. When present during virus adsorption several of the polymers exhibited potent activity against herpes simplex virus type 1 (HSV-1), HSV-2, thymidine kinase deficient HSV-1, human cytomegalovirus (HCMV) and HIV-1 and HIV-2 at concentrations that were not toxic to the host cells. A close correlation was found between the 50% inhibitory concentrations of the polyhydroxycarboxylates against HCMV-induced cytopathicity, their inhibitory effect on the expression of HCMV-specific immediate early antigens and their inhibitory effects on HCMV adsorption to the cells. The antiviral activity of the phenolic polymers was dependent on the presence of a sufficient number of carboxylic groups. The mechanism of antiviral action of the polyhydroxycarboxylates can thus be ascribed to inhibition of virus adsorption. This type of compound may have potential in a vaginal gel to prevent sexual transmission of HSV and HIV.
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Affiliation(s)
- A Meerbach
- Institute for Antiviral Chemotherapy, Friedrich-Schiller University, Jena, Germany.
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Casimiro-Garcia A, De Clercq E, Pannecouque C, Witvrouw M, Loftus TL, Turpin JA, Buckheit RW, Fanwick PE, Cushman M. Synthesis and anti-HIV activity of cosalane analogues incorporating two dichlorodisalicylmethane pharmacophore fragments. Bioorg Med Chem 2001; 9:2827-41. [PMID: 11597463 DOI: 10.1016/s0968-0896(01)00152-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/27/2022]
Abstract
A new series of cosalane analogues incorporating two fragments of the dichlorodisalicylmethane pharmacophore has been synthesized. In order to identify the position for the attachment of the pharmacophore fragments to the steroid ring that results in the most potent analogues, two types of compounds were designed. In the first type, the two pharmacophore fragments were attached at C-3 and C-17 of the steroid ring by using appropriate linker units. In the second type, both pharmacophore groups were connected to C-3 of the steroid through an alkenyl chain containing an amide moiety. All of the new compounds displayed antiviral activity versus HIV-1(RF), HIV-1(IIIB), and HIV-2(ROD) in cell culture. The relative potencies of the compounds resulting from the two attachment strategies were found to depend on the viral strain as well as the cell type. Overall, the attachment of the second pharmacophore did not result in either a large gain or a large loss in anti-HIV activity, and the results are therefore consistent with the hypothesis that the two pharmacophores act independently, and one at a time, with positively charged amino acid side chains present on the surface of gp120 and CD4.
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Affiliation(s)
- A Casimiro-Garcia
- Department of Medicinal Chemistry and Molecular Pharmacology, Purdue University, West Lafayette, IN 47907, USA
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Affiliation(s)
- A Ebringerová
- Institute of Chemistry, Slovak Academy of Science, Bratislava, Slovak Republic
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Lüscher-Mattli M. Polyanions--a lost chance in the fight against HIV and other virus diseases? Antivir Chem Chemother 2000; 11:249-59. [PMID: 10950387 DOI: 10.1177/095632020001100401] [Citation(s) in RCA: 100] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Polyanions are known to exhibit potent antiviral activity in vitro, and may represent future therapeutic agents. This review summarizes literature reports, pertinent to anionic polymers as antiviral agents. The in vitro antiviral effects of numerous polyanionic compounds (sulphated polysaccharides, negatively charged serum albumin and milk proteins, synthetic sulphated polymers, polymerized anionic surfactants and polyphosphates) are described. This class of antiviral agent exhibits several unique properties that are not shared by other presently known antiviral agents: (i) a remarkable broad-spectrum antiviral activity against HIV-1, HIV-2 and a series of other enveloped viruses; (ii) the ability to inhibit syncytium formation between HIV-infected and normal CD4 T lymphocytes, a mechanism that drastically enhances HIV infectivity; and (iii) a low induction of viral drug-resistance. There is increasing evidence that polyanions interfere with the fusion process, a vital step in the viral replication cycle. The inhibition of virus-cell fusion appears to be the source of the antiviral activity of polyanions. In vivo, the pharmacological properties of polyanions result in a low bioavailability of the drugs to their viral targets, and hence a poor antiviral activity in vivo. It is suggested that polyanions must be used in combination with drug delivery systems in order to become therapeutically useful antiviral agents. Some drug delivery systems are briefly discussed.
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Witvrouw M, De Clercq E. Sulfated polysaccharides extracted from sea algae as potential antiviral drugs. GENERAL PHARMACOLOGY 1997; 29:497-511. [PMID: 9352294 DOI: 10.1016/s0306-3623(96)00563-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 328] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/05/2023]
Abstract
The inhibitory effects of polyanionic substances on the replication of herpes simplex virus (HSV) and other viruses were reported almost four decades ago. However, these observations did not generate much interest, because the antiviral action of the compounds was considered to be largely nonspecific. Shortly after the identification of human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) as the causative agent of the acquired immune deficiency syndrome (AIDS) in 1984, heparin and other sulfated polysaccharides were found to be potent and selective inhibitors of HIV-1 replication in cell culture. Since 1988, the activity spectrum of the sulfated polysaccharides has been shown to extend to various enveloped viruses, including viruses that emerge as opportunistic pathogens (e.g., herpes simplex virus [HSV] and cytomegalovirus [CMV]) in immunosuppressed (e.g., AIDS) patients. As potential anti-HIV drug candidates, sulfated polysaccharides offer a number of promising features. They are able to block HIV replication in cell culture at concentrations as low as 0.1 to 0.01 microgram ml-1 without toxicity to the host cells at concentrations up to 2.5 mg ml-1. We noted that some polysulfates show a differential inhibitory activity against different HIV strains, suggesting that marked differences exist in the target molecules with which polysulfates interact. They not only inhibit the cytopathic effect of HIV, but also prevent HIV-induced syncytium (giant cell) formation. Furthermore, experiments carried out with dextran sulfate samples of increasing molecular weight and with sulfated cyclodextrins of different degrees of sulfation have shown that antiviral activity increases with increasing molecular weight and degree of sulfation. A sugar backbone is not strictly needed for the anti-HIV activity of polysulfates because sulfated polymers composed of a carbon-carbon backbone have also proved to be highly efficient anti-HIV agents in vitro. Other, yet to be defined, structural features may also play an important role. Sulfated polysaccharides may act synergistically with other anti-HIV drugs (e.g., azidothymidine [AZT]). They are known to lead very slowly to virus-drug resistance development and they show activity against HIV mutants that have become resistant to reverse transcriptase inhibitors, such as AZT, tetrahydro-imidazo [4,5,l-jk] [1,4]-benzodiazepin-2(1H)-thione (TIBO) and others. From studies on their mechanism of action we concluded that polysulfates exert their anti-HIV activity by shielding off the positively charged sites in the V3 loop of the viral envelope glycoprotein (gp120). The V3 loop is necessary for virus attachment to cell surface heparan sulfate, a primary binding site, before more specific binding occurs to the CD4 receptor of CD4+ cells. This general mechanism also explains the broad antiviral activity of polysulfates against enveloped viruses. Variations in the viral envelope glycoprotein region may result in differences in the susceptibility of different enveloped viruses to compounds that interact with their envelope glycoproteins. The efficacy of polysulfates in the therapy and/or prophylaxis of retroviral infections and opportunistic infections remains to be demonstrated both in animal models and humans. It is important to consider not only treatment of patients who are already infected with HIV, but also prophylaxis and protection from HIV and/or other virus infections. Because (i) sexual transmission is responsible for the large majority of HIV infections worldwide; (ii) this transmission is mostly mediated via mononuclear cells that infect epithelial cells of the genital tract; and because (iii) polysulfates effectively inhibit cell-cell adhesion, polysulfates may be considered as potentially effective in a vaginal formulation to protect against HIV infection.
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Affiliation(s)
- M Witvrouw
- Rega institute for Medical Research, Katholieke Universiteit Leuven, Belgium
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18
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Abstract
Depending on the stage of their intervention with the viral replicative cycle, human immunodeficiency virus inhibitors could be divided into the following groups: (i) adsorption inhibitors (i.e., CD4 constructs, polysulfates, polysulfonates, polycarboxylates, and polyoxometalates), (ii) fusion inhibitors (i.e., plant lectins, succinylated or aconitylated albumins, and betulinic acid derivatives), (iii) uncoating inhibitors (i.e., bicyclams), (iv) reverse transcription inhibitors acting either competitively with the substrate binding site (i.e., dideoxynucleoside analogs and acyclic nucleoside phosphonates) or allosterically with a nonsubstrate binding site (i.e., non-nucleoside reverse transcriptase inhibitors), (v) integration inhibitors, (vi) DNA replication inhibitors, (vii) transcription inhibitors (i.e., antisense oligodeoxynucleotides and Tat antagonists), (viii) translation inhibitors (i.e., antisense oligodeoxynucleotides and ribozymes), (ix) maturation inhibitors (i.e., protease inhibitors, myristoylation inhibitors, and glycosylation inhibitors), and finally, (x) budding (assembly/release) inhibitors. Current knowledge, including the therapeutic potential, of these various inhibitors is discussed. In view of their potential clinical the utility, the problem of virus-drug resistance and possible strategies to circumvent this problem are also addressed.
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Affiliation(s)
- E De Clercq
- Rega Institute for Medical Research, Katholieke Universiteit Leuven, Belgium
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Takahata H, Momose T. Chapter 3 Simple Indolizidine Alkaloids. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 1993. [DOI: 10.1016/s0099-9598(08)60145-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 03/09/2023]
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22
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