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Monachesi B, Deruti A, Vaes J, Leoni P, Grecucci A. How sexual objectification marks the brain: fMRI evidence of self-objectification and its harmful emotional consequences. Neuroimage 2024; 297:120729. [PMID: 38992451 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuroimage.2024.120729] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/05/2024] [Revised: 07/04/2024] [Accepted: 07/08/2024] [Indexed: 07/13/2024] Open
Abstract
Female Sexual Objectification refers to perceiving and treating women based on their body appearance. This phenomenon may serve as a precursor for dysfunctional behaviors, particularly among females prone to self-objectification and experiencing shame emotions. Understanding this challenging trajectory by disclosing its neural consequences may be crucial for comprehending extreme psychopathological outcomes. However, investigations in this sense are still scarce. The present study explores the neural correlates of female participants' experiences of being objectified and their relationship with self-objectification, emotional responses and individual dispositions in self-esteem, emotion regulation abilities and self-conscious emotion proneness. To this aim, 25 female participants underwent an fMRI experimental session while they were exposed to interpersonal encounters with objectifying or non-objectifying men. Participants' experienced emotions and levels of attention shifted toward their bodies (self-objectification) was reported after each interaction. The results revealed increased brain activity in objectifying contexts, impacting cortical (frontal, occipital and temporal cortex) and subcortical regions (thalamus, and hippocampus) involved in visual, emotion, and social processing. Remarkably, the inferior temporal gyrus emerged as a crucial neural hub associated in opposite ways with self-esteem and the self-conscious emotion of shame, highlighting its role in self-referential processing during social dynamics. This study points out the importance of adopting a neuroscientific perspective for a deeper understanding of sexual objectification, and to shed light on its possible neural consequences.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bianca Monachesi
- Neuroscience and Society Laboratory, Neuroscience Area, SISSA, Via Bonomea, 265, Trieste 34136, Italy; Department of Psychology and Cognitive Sciences, University of Trento, Italy.
| | - Alice Deruti
- Fondazione IRCCS Istituto Neurologico Carlo Besta, Milano, Italy
| | - Jeroen Vaes
- Department of Psychology and Cognitive Sciences, University of Trento, Italy
| | - Paolo Leoni
- Department of Psychology and Cognitive Sciences, University of Trento, Italy
| | - Alessandro Grecucci
- Department of Psychology and Cognitive Sciences, University of Trento, Italy; Centre for Medical Sciences, CISMed, University of Trento, Italy.
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Akbar S, Ghazal P. The mental health of working women after the COVID-19 pandemic: an assessment of the effect of the rise in sexual harassment during the pandemic on the mental health of Pakistani women using DASS-21. Front Psychiatry 2023; 14:1119932. [PMID: 37520230 PMCID: PMC10382200 DOI: 10.3389/fpsyt.2023.1119932] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/09/2022] [Accepted: 06/20/2023] [Indexed: 08/01/2023] Open
Abstract
Introduction The mental health of South Asian women has been observed to be in regression lately, with sexual harassment as one of the major factors accounting for mental health deterioration, especially for women who leave their homes frequently for work and study. The COVID-19 pandemic not only augmented the mental health distress of the general female population but the rise in sexual violence against women is being consistently reported around the globe. Based on this background, we adopted a two-pronged strategy to assess whether working women and students aged 18-55 experienced a rise in sexual harassment in the 18 months after lifting the COVID-19 lockdowns. Secondly, using the well-validated psychometric test, DASS-21, we evaluated the psychiatric outcome of this change on the mental health of those women. Study design The study was designed as a quantitative, cross-sectional survey-based research. Methodology A total of 303 women participated in this study. Personal interviews through a specifically designed questionnaire and psychometric test DASS-21 were administered to assess the mental health state of working women and female students, aged between 18 and 55 years old. The mean age of the participants was 37 ± 2.8. The study population was further categorized into two main groups of limited and frequent interactions based on varying levels of the frequency of leaving home and interacting with male strangers in their daily routine. Data were analyzed and the correlation between limited/frequent interaction and DASS-21 total scores and sub-scores of depression, anxiety and stress, and other sociodemographic variables were investigated using the Chi-square test, whereas psychosocial predictors of mental distress were evaluated using multiple linear regression analysis after matching limited and frequent interaction groups using a 1:1 propensity score-matched pair method for sociodemographic covariates. Results Overall, approximately 50% of our study population experienced changes in the behavior of male strangers that could be categorized as harassment in their daily life interactions, whereas 33.66% of participants experienced relatively more sexual harassment post-pandemic than before it. This observation was significantly correlated with the frequency of male interaction (χ2 = 5.71, p < 0.01). Overall, 34% of our study population scored >60 on the DASS21-total score, whereas 29.04% scored >21 on the depression scale. Alarmingly, >40% of the women in the frequent interaction group scored in the extremely severe range of anxiety and depression. Moreover, in the regression analysis, out of all the factors analyzed, the extent of everyday interaction with male strangers, an increase in fear of sexual crimes, and a self-perceived increase in mental distress during the 18 months post-pandemic were found to be highly statistically significant predictors of mental distress not only for total DASS 21 but also for the sub-scales of depression, anxiety, and stress. Conclusion In Pakistan, women experienced a rise in sexual harassment cases post-COVID-19. An increase in sexual harassment was found to be a predictor of negative mental health in the form of depression, anxiety, and stress.
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Monachesi B, Deruti A, Grecucci A, Vaes J. Electrophysiological, emotional and behavioural responses of female targets of sexual objectification. Sci Rep 2023; 13:5777. [PMID: 37031255 PMCID: PMC10082788 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-023-32379-w] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/17/2022] [Accepted: 03/27/2023] [Indexed: 04/10/2023] Open
Abstract
Sexual objectification and the interiorized objectifying gaze (self-objectification) are dangerous phenomena for women's psychological wellness. However, their specific effects on women's socio-affective reactions are still poorly understood, and their neural activity has never been explored before. In the present study, we investigated women's emotional and electrophysiological responses during simulated computer-based objectifying social interactions, and we examined consequent punishing behaviours towards the perpetrator using the ultimatum game. Behavioural results (N = 36) showed that during objectifying encounters women generally felt angrier/disgusted and tended to punish the perpetrator in later interactions. However, the more the women self-objectified, the more they felt ashamed (p = 0.011) and tended to punish the perpetrators less (p = 0.008). At a neural level (N = 32), objectifying interactions modulated female participants' neural signal elicited during the processing of the perpetrator, increasing early (N170) and later (EPN, LPP) ERP components. In addition, only the amplitude of the LPP positively correlated with shame (p = 0.006) and the level of self-objectification (p = 0.018). This finding provides first evidence for the specific time-course of sexual objectification, self-objectification and its associated shame response, and proves that emotional and social consequences of sexual objectification in women may depend on their tendency to self-objectify.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bianca Monachesi
- Department of Psychology and Cognitive Science, University of Trento, Trento, Italy.
| | - Alice Deruti
- Department of Psychology and Cognitive Science, University of Trento, Trento, Italy
| | - Alessandro Grecucci
- Department of Psychology and Cognitive Science, University of Trento, Trento, Italy
- Centre for Medical Sciences, CISMed, University of Trento, Trento, Italy
| | - Jeroen Vaes
- Department of Psychology and Cognitive Science, University of Trento, Trento, Italy
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Brockdorf AN, Eagan SR, Zosky JE, Grandgenett HM, Gervais SJ, DiLillo D. Associations Between Sexual Objectification and Bystander Efficacy: The Mediating Role of Barriers to Bystander Intervention. VIOLENCE AND VICTIMS 2023; 38:148-164. [PMID: 36717194 DOI: 10.1891/vv-2021-0168] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/18/2023]
Abstract
This study examined whether sexual objectification (i.e., reducing someone to a sex object via a disproportionate focus on appearance and sexual characteristics) was associated with decreased confidence in future bystander intervention to reduce the risk for sexual violence (i.e., bystander efficacy) through several barriers to intervention: failing to notice the event, failing to identify the situation as risky, and failing to take responsibility Participants were 1,021 undergraduates (n = 309 men; n = 712 women) who completed self-report measures. Because men frequently perpetrate objectification, whereas women often experience objectification, complementary models were tested with objectification perpetration in men and objectification experiences in women. As expected, for men, each barrier mediated negative associations between objectification perpetration and bystander efficacy. Unexpectedly, for women, each barrier mediated positive associations between objectification experiences and bystander efficacy. Findings underscore important gender differences in associations between sexual objectification and bystander efficacy, as well as potential benefits of helping bystanders recognize the risk for sexual violence and assume responsibility for intervening.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Sarah R Eagan
- Department of Psychology, University of Nebraska - Lincoln, Lincoln, Nebraska, USA
| | - Joshua E Zosky
- Department of Psychology, University of Nebraska - Lincoln, Lincoln, Nebraska, USA
| | - Hanna M Grandgenett
- Department of Psychology, University of Nebraska - Lincoln, Lincoln, Nebraska, USA
| | - Sarah J Gervais
- Department of Psychology, University of Nebraska - Lincoln, Lincoln, Nebraska, USA
| | - David DiLillo
- Department of Psychology, University of Nebraska - Lincoln, Lincoln, Nebraska, USA
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Cortopassi AC, Kalichman SC. Objectification and racial homophily among black men who have sex with men logged onto Grindr. COMPUTERS IN HUMAN BEHAVIOR 2023. [DOI: 10.1016/j.chb.2023.107679] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/28/2023]
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Jiao J, Terán L, Aubrey JS. Buffering an Objectifying Culture: Interpersonal Sexual Objectification, Self-Objectification, and Attachment Anxiety. PSYCHOLOGY OF WOMEN QUARTERLY 2022. [DOI: 10.1177/03616843221115335] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
In this article, we report two studies that examined the dynamics between interpersonal sexual objectification, self-objectification, and individuals’ attachment in romantic relationships. Study 1 was based on data from 392 college students ( Mage = 21.42 years, 66.8% women). Results showed positive associations between interpersonal sexual objectification, self-objectification, attachment anxiety, and attachment avoidance among women. For men, significant and positive associations were only observed between interpersonal sexual objectification and self-objectification and between self-objectification and attachment anxiety. Study 2 was a 6-month longitudinal study where we recruited participants through CloudResearch ( n = 638, Mage = 24.26 years, 55.8% women at Time 1; n = 283, Mage = 24.43 years, 56.9% women at Time 2; return rate = 44.36%). Results from longitudinal analyses showed that women reported stronger stability in self-objectification than men, and for both women and men, their attachment anxiety predicted increased self-objectification. Additionally, in both studies, women reported higher levels of interpersonal sexual objectification, self-objectification, and attachment anxiety than men. Overall, the findings suggest that high-quality relationships may help buffer the negative effects engendered by an objectifying culture. Based on our results, we recommend that clinicians and parents work to foster secure and healthy relationships as a means of reducing the extensive negative repercussions of objectification.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jian Jiao
- Department of Communication, University of Arizona, Tucson, AZ, USA
| | - Larissa Terán
- Department of Communication, University of Arizona, Tucson, AZ, USA
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Dvir M, Nagar M. Would victims blame victims? Effects of ostracism, sexual objectification, and empathy on victim blaming. Front Psychol 2022; 13:912698. [PMID: 35978770 PMCID: PMC9376598 DOI: 10.3389/fpsyg.2022.912698] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/04/2022] [Accepted: 06/27/2022] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
In the current research, we examined whether ostracism and sexual objectification affect the tendency to blame the victim of sexual harassment. Previous research concerning victim blame examined the attribution of blame considering the characteristics of the victim, the perpetrator, and the relation between them. However, no research to date examined whether situational factors of the perceiver can affect their perception and judgment of blame. We propose that sexual objectification and ostracism may elicit empathy toward the victim, and in turn, reduce victim blame. In two experimental studies, women were instructed to imagine interacting with a videotaped man who either gazed at their body (objectification), away from them (ostracism), or at their face (treated well). Then, they were asked to read a newspaper article (study 1) or watch a video (study 2) portraying encounters in which the man's sexual advances continued after the woman expressed discomfort and lack of interest. In study 1, we found that sexually objectified women attributed less blame to the woman compared with the women who were treated well, with ostracized women falling in between and marginally different from both. In study 2, using mediation analysis we found an indirect effect such that sexually objectified women experienced greater empathy toward the victim, which was associated with reduced attribution of blame. It appears that greater similarity between the situation of the perceiver and the situation of the victim elicits greater empathy. This adds to the previous knowledge that personality similarities result in higher empathy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Maayan Dvir
- The Center for Psychobiological Research, Department of Psychology, Max Stern Yezreel Valley College, Yezreel Valley, Israel
- *Correspondence: Maayan Dvir
| | - Maayan Nagar
- School of Criminology, Faculty of Law, Haifa University, Haifa, Israel
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8
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Wang X, Chen H, Chen Z. Women's Self-Objectification Under Competition When They Believe Sex Is Power. ARCHIVES OF SEXUAL BEHAVIOR 2022; 51:2837-2854. [PMID: 35861947 DOI: 10.1007/s10508-022-02335-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/03/2021] [Revised: 04/01/2022] [Accepted: 04/02/2022] [Indexed: 05/10/2023]
Abstract
Competitions are ubiquitous and their psychological consequences for women have not received sufficient attention. For this research, we tested whether competition, in either work settings or a broader form of competition for resources, would interact with the sex is power belief to result in self-objectification among women. This prediction was confirmed by a series of studies (N = 1416), including correlational studies, a quasi-experiment, and fully controlled experiments, with samples including company employees, MBA students with work experience, college students currently competing in a job market, and Mechanical Turkers. Competition (or a sense of competition) as a feature of the working environment (Study 1), a real state in life (Study 2), or a temporarily activated state (Studies 3-5) resulted in self-objectification among women who believe sex is power (Study 1) or who enter such a mindset (Studies 2-5). This effect further impaired the pursuit of personal growth (Studies 4 and 5).
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Affiliation(s)
- Xijing Wang
- Department of Social and Behavioural Sciences, City University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong, China
| | - Hao Chen
- Department of Social Psychology, Nankai University, Tianjin, China
- Research Centre for Greater Bay Area Social Psychology, Sun Yat-Sen University, Guangzhou, China
| | - Zhansheng Chen
- Department of Psychology, The University of Hong Kong, Pok Fu Lam, Hong Kong, 999077, China.
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9
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Pecini C, Di Bernardo GA, Crapolicchio E, Stathi S, Vezzali L, Andrighetto L. Stop looking at me! associations between men's partner‐objectification and women's self‐objectification, body shame and life satisfaction in romantic relationships. JOURNAL OF COMMUNITY & APPLIED SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY 2022. [DOI: 10.1002/casp.2627] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/10/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Chiara Pecini
- Department of Educational Science University of Genova Genoa Italy
| | | | - Eleonora Crapolicchio
- Department of Psychology Catholic University of the Sacred Heart of Milan Milan Italy
| | - Sofia Stathi
- Department of Psychology & Counselling University of Greenwich London UK
| | - Loris Vezzali
- Medical and Dental Department of Morphological Sciences related to Transplant, Oncology and Regenerative Medicine University of Modena and Reggio Emilia Modena Italy
| | - Luca Andrighetto
- Department of Educational Science University of Genova Genoa Italy
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10
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Weight stigma from media: Its associations with coping responses and health outcomes. CURRENT PSYCHOLOGY 2022. [DOI: 10.1007/s12144-022-03179-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
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11
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Wu Y, Mulkens S, Alleva JM. Body image and acceptance of cosmetic surgery in China and the Netherlands: A qualitative study on cultural differences and similarities. Body Image 2022; 40:30-49. [PMID: 34801810 DOI: 10.1016/j.bodyim.2021.10.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/03/2021] [Revised: 08/19/2021] [Accepted: 10/19/2021] [Indexed: 10/19/2022]
Abstract
There is an established relationship between acceptance of cosmetic surgery and psychological factors, including body image. However, qualitative research among diverse cultural groups is needed to provide a more fine-grained understanding of the influences on women's attitudes towards cosmetic surgery. In this study, 20 Chinese and 20 Dutch women aged 18-50 years (MChinese = 34.20; MDutch = 34.70) participated in one-on-one semi-structured interviews. Data were analyzed using reflexive thematic analysis. We identified three themes that captured the factors that women perceived to foster favorable attitudes towards cosmetic surgery: (a) sociocultural pressures (e.g., normalization of cosmetic surgery, appearance-focused peers); (b) intrapersonal characteristics (e.g., beauty-ideal internalization, social comparison); and (c) benefits of beauty (e.g., attracting men, socioeconomic benefits). Conversely, two themes captured the factors perceived to reduce favorable attitudes towards cosmetic surgery: (a) intrapersonal characteristics (e.g., unconditional body acceptance, self-confidence); and (b) external considerations (e.g., health risks, financial costs). Overall, Chinese and Dutch participants shared many similarities in their opinions about what might affect cosmetic surgery consideration. The most striking cross-cultural differences concerned perceived socioeconomic benefits of beauty (mainly Chinese women) and women's conceptualization of body appreciation. This study may enable a more comprehensive understanding about the factors influencing Chinese and Dutch women's attitudes towards cosmetic surgery, and the nuances in these relationships across these cultures.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yi Wu
- Department of Clinical Psychological Science, Faculty of Psychology and Neuroscience, Maastricht University, Maastricht, the Netherlands.
| | - Sandra Mulkens
- Department of Clinical Psychological Science, Faculty of Psychology and Neuroscience, Maastricht University, Maastricht, the Netherlands; Department of Psychiatry and Neuropsychology, Faculty of Health, Medicine, and Life Sciences; School for Mental Health and Neuroscience, Maastricht University, Maastricht, The Netherlands
| | - Jessica M Alleva
- Department of Clinical Psychological Science, Faculty of Psychology and Neuroscience, Maastricht University, Maastricht, the Netherlands
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12
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Sáez G, Riemer AR, Brock RL, Gervais SJ. The Role of Interpersonal Sexual Objectification in Heterosexual Intimate Partner Violence From Perspectives of Perceivers and Targets. JOURNAL OF INTERPERSONAL VIOLENCE 2022; 37:1430-1455. [PMID: 32468928 DOI: 10.1177/0886260520922348] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/11/2023]
Abstract
Sexual objectification is a subtle manifestation of sexist discrimination and violence against women that involves seeing and treating women as sex objects of male sexual desire. The primary aim of this research was to connect sexual objectification experiences with heterosexual intimate partner violence. This set of studies examined the impact of sexual objectification on intimate partner violence for both the female victim (Study 1) and the male perpetrator (Study 2). Female (Study 1) and male (Study 2) participants were asked to rate the extent they are victims or perpetrators of sexual objectification experiences and intimate partner violence. Moreover, women's self-silencing and men's ascriptions of humanity and empathy (through empathic concern and perspective taking) toward their partner was assessed. The results of the first study (including 154 heterosexual women) showed that general sexual objectification victimization indirectly leads to higher psychological and physical violence through the internalization of self-silence schemas. The second study (including 165 heterosexual men) demonstrated a link between general sexual objectification perpetration and psychological and physical intimate partner violence. Moreover, the relation between men's perpetration of objectification and intimate partner violence was mediated by ascriptions of humanity and empathic concern toward their female partner (but not through perspective taking toward her). Results of both studies demonstrate the effect of sexual objectification (as target or perpetrator) on global intimate partner violence and explain the different psychological mechanisms through which it takes place depending on the gendered perspective. Theoretical implications and practical considerations for interventions on intimate partner violence are discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gemma Sáez
- Universidad Loyola Andalucía, Sevilla, Spain
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13
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Teng F, Miao Y, Cheng W, Huang X. Counting on you: benevolent sexism increases women's financial risk-taking. The Journal of Social Psychology 2021; 162:580-594. [PMID: 34346839 DOI: 10.1080/00224545.2021.1936438] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/20/2022]
Abstract
The present research examined whether and how benevolent sexism, a subjectively positive but sexist ideology, would influence women's financial risk-taking and we proposed that benevolent sexism would increase women's financial risk-taking through economic dependency. Three studies converged to support our proposition. Specifically, Studies 1 and 2 (n = 387) showed that benevolent sexism was positively associated with women's financial risk-taking; such that the more benevolent sexism women endorsed, the more financial risks they tended to take. Using an experimental design, Study 3 (n = 126) established the causal link between benevolent sexism and financial risk-taking for women, and also demonstrated the mediating effect of economic dependency. These findings highlight the role of social ideology in influencing women's financial risk-taking. Implications were discussed.
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Chen S, van Tilburg WAP, Leman PJ. Self-objectification in women predicts approval motivation in online self-presentation. BRITISH JOURNAL OF SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY 2021; 61:366-388. [PMID: 34287958 DOI: 10.1111/bjso.12485] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/09/2020] [Revised: 07/01/2021] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
Researchers have examined self-objectification - viewing oneself as an object rather than a subject - in terms of its impact on intrapersonal factors, such as mental health and cognitive performance. However, few have examined how self-objectification relates to interpersonal factors. The present research addressed this gap by testing the impact of self-objectification on social approval motivation among women. Study 1 (n = 103) found that individual differences in self-objectification correlated positively with approval motivation. Study 2 (n = 94) replicated these results and found that women who reported higher self-objectification were more willing to modify their social media profile pictures unrealistically. In Study 3 (n = 100), higher self-objectifying women were more willing to unrealistically modify their profile pictures even if this exceeded normative levels, which was replicated in Study 4 (n = 199). These results suggest that women's self-objectification is associated with a desire for approval from others and this desire manifests in a willingness to modify self-presentation.
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Kellie DJ, Blake KR, Brooks RC. Behind the makeup: The effects of cosmetics on women's self‐objectification, and their objectification by others. EUROPEAN JOURNAL OF SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY 2021. [DOI: 10.1002/ejsp.2767] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Dax J. Kellie
- Evolution & Ecology Research Centre University of New South Wales Sydney 2052 Australia
| | - Khandis R. Blake
- Evolution & Ecology Research Centre University of New South Wales Sydney 2052 Australia
- Melbourne School of Psychological Sciences University of Melbourne Melbourne 3011 Australia
| | - Robert C. Brooks
- Evolution & Ecology Research Centre University of New South Wales Sydney 2052 Australia
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Kahalon R, Becker JC, Shnabel N. Appearance comments presented as compliments at work: How are they perceived by targets and observers in and outside of workplace settings? JOURNAL OF APPLIED SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY 2021. [DOI: 10.1111/jasp.12732] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Rotem Kahalon
- Department of Psychology University of Zurich Zurich Switzerland
| | - Julia C. Becker
- The Institute for Social Psychology Osnabrück University Osnabruck Germany
| | - Nurit Shnabel
- The School of Psychological Sciences Tel‐Aviv University Tel Aviv Israel
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17
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Guo Q, Wu M. The relationship between self-objectification and social avoidance among Chinese middle adolescent girls: The mediating role of appearance comparison and self-esteem. CURRENT PSYCHOLOGY 2021. [DOI: 10.1007/s12144-021-01705-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
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18
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My Physical Appearance at the Center of Others' Concerns: What are the Consequences for Women's Metadehumanization and Emotions? Psychol Belg 2021; 61:116-130. [PMID: 33815812 PMCID: PMC7996437 DOI: 10.5334/pb.558] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/03/2022] Open
Abstract
Despite the frequency of women’s exposure to sexually objectifying behaviors in their daily life (e.g., through comments on their appearance, gazing or touching), no previous work has investigated how such a focus on their physical appearance influences women’s meta-perceptions. Capitalizing on recent studies showing that sexually objectified women are dehumanized by both male and female participants, the present paper investigates women’s metadehumanization (i.e., their perceptions of being viewed as less than fully human) and its emotional consequences following interpersonal sexual objectification. In three studies, we showed that when an interaction partner focuses on their physical appearance, women report higher levels of metadehumanization, as well as increased anger and sadness, than when the partner focuses on non-physical parts. Theoretical and empirical contributions of the present findings are discussed.
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Barbosa ADS, Romani-Dias M, Veludo-de-Oliveira TM. The Facets of Women Commodification: Violence in the University Context in Administration. RAC: REVISTA DE ADMINISTRAÇÃO CONTEMPORÂNEA 2020. [DOI: 10.1590/1982-7849rac2020190378] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022] Open
Abstract
ABSTRACT Context: violence against women is present in the most diverse social groups, especially in Latin America, as it is one of the most violent regions against women, with high numbers of rapes, harassments, and murders because of gender. Objective: the objective of this study is to deepen the understanding of the way in which violent situations against women occurs in the Brazilian university context and its different facets of objectification and commodification. Methods: we undertook in-depth interviews with 15 female and 5 male university students from business courses. Results: our findings suggest the female ample objectification and commodification in the university context and their negative consequences, such as self-objectification in its personal and professional aspects demonstrated by reports of uncertainty regarding their bodies, in exercising the activities of leadership, and their choice of profession. There happens to be commodification of: (a) the women’s body; (b) their sexuality; (c) their morality; and finally (d) their feelings. Conclusion: we contribute theoretically to expand the knowledge about the relation between objectification and commodification. In empirical and managerial terms, we present insights for educational institutions to combat discrimination against women.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Marcello Romani-Dias
- Escola Superior de Engenharia e Gestão (ESEG), Brazil; Universidade Positivo, Brazil
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Terán L, Jiao J, Aubrey JS. The Relational Burden of Objectification: Exploring How Past Experiences of Interpersonal Sexual Objectification Are Related to Relationship Competencies. SEX ROLES 2020. [DOI: 10.1007/s11199-020-01188-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/23/2022]
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21
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Wollast R, De Wilde M, Bernard P, Klein O. Percevoir son corps à travers le regard d’autrui : une revue de la littérature sur l’auto-objectification. ANNEE PSYCHOLOGIQUE 2020. [DOI: 10.3917/anpsy1.203.0321] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/14/2022]
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22
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Poon K, Jiang Y. Sexual objectification increases retaliatory aggression. Aggress Behav 2020; 46:291-304. [PMID: 32212173 DOI: 10.1002/ab.21889] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/30/2019] [Revised: 03/04/2020] [Accepted: 03/09/2020] [Indexed: 11/10/2022]
Abstract
Two experiments were conducted to investigate whether sexual objectification increases retaliatory aggression serially through increased vulnerability and hostile intent attributions. Female participants were first exposed to the sexual objectification manipulation by receiving compliments from an online male partner (Experiment 1) or imagining a workplace objectification experience (Experiment 2). Afterward, their vulnerability and hostile intent attributions were assessed. Finally, they were given an opportunity to behave aggressively toward the source of objectification. The results of both experiments indicated that, compared with their counterparts in the control conditions, participants in the sexual objectification condition reported higher levels of vulnerability, hostile intent attributions, and aggression. Moreover, vulnerability and hostile intent attributions serially mediated the effect of sexual objectification on aggression. These findings highlight the critical influence of vulnerability and hostile intent attributions in understanding how sexual objectification increases aggression.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kai‐Tak Poon
- Department of Psychology and Centre for Psychosocial HealthThe Education University of Hong Kong Tai Po Hong Kong
| | - Yufei Jiang
- Department of Psychology and Centre for Psychosocial HealthThe Education University of Hong Kong Tai Po Hong Kong
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23
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Baldissarri C, Andrighetto L, Di Bernardo GA, Annoni A. Workers' self‐objectification and tendencies to conform to others. JOURNAL OF COMMUNITY & APPLIED SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY 2020. [DOI: 10.1002/casp.2461] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/06/2022]
Affiliation(s)
| | - Luca Andrighetto
- Department of Educational Science University of Genova Genoa Italy
| | - Gian A. Di Bernardo
- Department of Education and Human Sciences University of Modena and Reggio Emilia Modena Italy
| | - Andrea Annoni
- Department of Education and Human Sciences University of Modena and Reggio Emilia Modena Italy
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24
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25
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Winn L, Cornelius R. Self-Objectification and Cognitive Performance: A Systematic Review of the Literature. Front Psychol 2020; 11:20. [PMID: 32047457 PMCID: PMC6997128 DOI: 10.3389/fpsyg.2020.00020] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/29/2019] [Accepted: 01/07/2020] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Objectification theorists posit that exposure to sexually objectifying behavior, images, etc., leads women in particular to adopt an objectifying self-perspective. State self-objectification (SSO) (i.e., the internalization of the objectifying gaze) is theorized to usurp individuals' cognitive resources by diverting attention to their bodies. The objective of this paper is to systematically review the literature surrounding self-objectification and cognitive performance. Six databases retrieved 1,779 relevant articles. Studies were deemed eligible for inclusion if they (a) quantitatively investigated the relationship between SSO and cognitive performance using valid and reliable measures, (b) were published in a peer-reviewed journal between 1997 and 2019, inclusive, and (c) were available in English. Nine studies fulfilled all inclusion criteria. As the heterogeneity of the literature precluded meta-analysis, narrative synthesis was employed to review the results. While the quality of the studies was mixed, the results of our review support the contention that self-objectification impairs cognitive functioning. Appearance monitoring, actual-ideal self-discrepancies, negative self-conscious emotions, gender schema activation, and stereotype activation are evaluated as potential mechanisms behind the relationship between state self-objectification and cognitive performance, while chronic (trait) self-objectification is evaluated as a potential moderator.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lara Winn
- Psychology, Vassar College, Poughkeepsie, NY, United States
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26
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Sáez G, Alonso-Ferres M, Garrido-Macías M, Valor-Segura I, Expósito F. The Detrimental Effect of Sexual Objectification on Targets' and Perpetrators' Sexual Satisfaction: The Mediating Role of Sexual Coercion. Front Psychol 2020; 10:2748. [PMID: 31920805 PMCID: PMC6917605 DOI: 10.3389/fpsyg.2019.02748] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/08/2019] [Accepted: 11/21/2019] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Sexual objectification is a variable to consider for understanding the sexual violence that takes place into intimate context. The set of studies presented here aims to connect sexual objectification phenomena with sexual coercion and explore the consequences that both have on sexual satisfaction. Two studies examined the association between sexual objectification and sexual satisfaction for both views: female target (Study 1) and male perpetrator (Study 2) perspectives. The results of the first study (n = 138 heterosexual women) demonstrated that perceiving partner objectification (but not reporting general sexual objectification victimization) is indirectly linked to a lower sexual satisfaction because of lower rejection and higher sexual coercion rates. The second study (n = 136 heterosexual men) showed the indirect effect of partner objectification and general sexual objectification perpetration on sexual satisfaction after sexual coercion perpetration. Results of both studies demonstrated the negative consequences that sexual objectification has on sexual satisfaction for both male perpetrators and female targets.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gemma Sáez
- Departamento de Psicología, Universidad Loyola Andalucía, Seville, Spain
| | - María Alonso-Ferres
- Department of Social Psychology, Faculty of Psychology, Mind, Brain and Behavioral Research Center (CIMCYC), University of Granada, Granada, Spain
| | - Marta Garrido-Macías
- Department of Social Psychology, Faculty of Psychology, Mind, Brain and Behavioral Research Center (CIMCYC), University of Granada, Granada, Spain
| | - Inmaculada Valor-Segura
- Department of Social Psychology, Faculty of Psychology, Mind, Brain and Behavioral Research Center (CIMCYC), University of Granada, Granada, Spain
| | - Francisca Expósito
- Department of Social Psychology, Faculty of Psychology, Mind, Brain and Behavioral Research Center (CIMCYC), University of Granada, Granada, Spain
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27
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Bareket O, Shnabel N. Domination and Objectification: Men’s Motivation for Dominance Over Women Affects Their Tendency to Sexually Objectify Women. PSYCHOLOGY OF WOMEN QUARTERLY 2019. [DOI: 10.1177/0361684319871913] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
In the present research, we examined the association between heterosexual men’s motivation for dominance over women and their sexual objectification of women. We found that men’s social dominance orientation (SDO) correlated with their tendency to sexually objectify women (Study 1). Inducing threat to men’s dominance over women by assigning men to work under the supervision of women bosses—versus jointly with women partners (Study 2a) or under men bosses (Study 3)—led to increased sexual objectification of women among high-SDO participants. These results persisted when controlling for mood. Examining the corresponding effects among heterosexual women revealed that the correlation between SDO and the sexual objectification of men was non-significant (Study 1) and that working under men bosses did not affect women’s sexual objectification of men (Study 2b). These findings support feminist theorizing that men (re)assert their dominance over women by sexually objectifying them. Increased awareness of the motivations underlying women’s sexual objectification can help professionals plan useful interventions to reduce this phenomenon, hopefully limiting its negative effects on women’s well-being.
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Affiliation(s)
- Orly Bareket
- The School of Psychological Sciences, Tel Aviv University, Tel Aviv, Israel
| | - Nurit Shnabel
- The School of Psychological Sciences, Tel Aviv University, Tel Aviv, Israel
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28
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Sagrestano LM, Ormerod AJ, DeBlaere C. Peer sexual harassment predicts African American girls’ psychological distress and sexual experimentation. INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF BEHAVIORAL DEVELOPMENT 2019. [DOI: 10.1177/0165025419870292] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
Peer sexual harassment (PSH) occurs frequently and across contexts during adolescence. The current study examined the relations among PSH in school, psychological distress, sexual experimentation, and sexual risk-taking in a sample of African American middle and high school girls. Results indicate that negative body appraisals mediated the relationship between PSH and psychological distress, suggesting that PSH is one way to operationalize interpersonal sexualization and sexual objectification. PSH was directly associated with sexual experimentation, but the association between PSH and sexual experimentation was not mediated by negative body appraisals. Neither PSH nor negative body appraisals were related to sexual risk-taking. This suggests that frequent exposure to high levels of sexualization and sexual objectification, in the form of PSH, is associated with more psychological distress and sexual experimentation, but not with sexual risk-taking, regardless of how girls feel about their bodies.
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29
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Gervais SJ, Sáez G, Riemer AR, Klein O. The Social Interaction Model of Objectification: A process model of goal-based objectifying exchanges between men and women. BRITISH JOURNAL OF SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY 2019; 59:248-283. [PMID: 31448823 DOI: 10.1111/bjso.12339] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/12/2018] [Revised: 06/27/2019] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
People perceive and treat women as sex objects in social exchanges. The interaction processes through which women are objectified, however, have rarely been considered. To address this gap in the literature, we propose the Social Interaction Model of Objectification (SIMO). Rooted in social exchange and objectification theories, the SIMO predicts objectifying behaviours stemming from sexual goals between men and women. We propose that the behavioural dynamics of objectification can be understood through a series of goal-based exchange processes that are shaped by patriarchy. Articulating the SIMO and its predictions for behaviour in social interactions, we describe the scant social psychological studies in this area. Not only is the SIMO useful for understanding objectifying interaction processes, but it can be used to understand why women sometimes evaluate objectification positively as well as instances of sexual violence. Finally, we discuss critical directions for future research and provide promising methodological approaches for testing the SIMO.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sarah J Gervais
- Department of Psychology, University of Nebraska-Lincoln, Nebraska, USA
| | - Gemma Sáez
- Departamento de Psicología, Universidad Loyola Andalucía, Seville, Spain
| | - Abigail R Riemer
- Department of Life Sciences, Carroll University, Waukesha, Wisconsin, USA
| | - Olivier Klein
- Center for Social and Cultural Psychology, Université Libre de Bruxelles, Bruxelles, Belgium
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30
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Kellie DJ, Blake KR, Brooks RC. What drives female objectification? An investigation of appearance-based interpersonal perceptions and the objectification of women. PLoS One 2019; 14:e0221388. [PMID: 31442260 PMCID: PMC6707629 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0221388] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/28/2018] [Accepted: 08/06/2019] [Indexed: 12/15/2022] Open
Abstract
Previous research finds that both men and women perceive sexualized women as lacking in certain human qualities such as mental capacity and moral status. The mechanism underlying this effect, however, is unclear. The present two studies test how appearance-based judgements affect the degree to which a broad sample of women are objectified. In Study 1 (N = 279), full-body images of women wearing different clothing outfits were rated by male and female participants on perceived attractiveness, sexual intent and age. In Study 2, male and female participants (N = 1,695) viewed these same images from Study 1 and rated them on two dimensions of objectification (agency and patiency). We analyzed associations between these dimensions of objectification and the averaged appearance-based perceptions from Study 1. We find that women perceived as more open to casual sex are attributed less mental capacity and less moral status. We also find that participants tend to associate attractiveness with greater mental and moral status in women, but we find only limited evidence that perceived age influences objectification. Our findings suggest that although positive attractiveness biases may mitigate the amount a woman is objectified, greater female objectification may be prompted by observers' negative stereotypes of promiscuous women.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dax J. Kellie
- Evolution & Ecology Research Centre, School of Biological, Earth and Environmental Science, The University of New South Wales, Sydney, Australia
| | - Khandis R. Blake
- Evolution & Ecology Research Centre, School of Biological, Earth and Environmental Science, The University of New South Wales, Sydney, Australia
| | - Robert C. Brooks
- Evolution & Ecology Research Centre, School of Biological, Earth and Environmental Science, The University of New South Wales, Sydney, Australia
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31
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Baldissarri C, Andrighetto L, Gabbiadini A, Valtorta RR, Sacino A, Volpato C. Do Self-Objectified Women Believe Themselves to Be Free? Sexual Objectification and Belief in Personal Free Will. Front Psychol 2019; 10:1867. [PMID: 31440196 PMCID: PMC6694764 DOI: 10.3389/fpsyg.2019.01867] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/19/2019] [Accepted: 07/29/2019] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
The present study aims to investigate the indirect link between sexual objectification and belief in personal free will. We hypothesized that being subjected to objectifying commentary would lead women to self-objectify and, in turn, to perceive themselves as having less personal free will. In this study, 105 women were asked to sign up a website created for this study by providing a personal description and a photo. After signing up, they received feedback from a fictitious male user. Depending on the condition, the comment was neutral (baseline), focused on their description (non-objectifying) or focused on their physical appearance (objectifying). The results showed that participants in the objectifying condition (vs. non-objectifying vs. baseline) self-objectified (i.e., perceived themselves as lacking human mental states and more as an instrument vs. a human) and, in turn, believed that they had less personal free will. The theoretical and practical implications of these findings for educators and therapists are discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Luca Andrighetto
- Department of Educational Sciences, University of Genoa, Genoa, Italy
| | | | | | - Alessandra Sacino
- Department of Educational Sciences, University of Genoa, Genoa, Italy
| | - Chiara Volpato
- Department of Psychology, University of Milano-Bicocca, Milan, Italy
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32
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Moya-Garófano A, Moya M. Focusing on one's own appearance leads to body shame in women but not men: The mediating role of body surveillance and appearance-contingent self-worth. Body Image 2019; 29:58-64. [PMID: 30831335 DOI: 10.1016/j.bodyim.2019.02.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/19/2018] [Revised: 02/14/2019] [Accepted: 02/14/2019] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
Abstract
Previous research has shown that some appearance-focused situations lead to increased self-objectification, especially among women. The present research explored, with an experimental design, whether the simple fact of thinking about one's own physical appearance increases body shame through body surveillance and appearance-contingent self-worth in men and women. Our main prediction was that focusing on one's own appearance would increase both women's body surveillance and appearance-contingent self-worth, and that both variables in turn would increase women's body shame. Among men, while we expected body surveillance and appearance-contingent self-worth to be related to body shame, we believed that thinking about their physical appearance would be less likely to increase their body surveillance and appearance-contingent self-worth. Spanish young men (n = 123) and women (n = 140) were randomly assigned to an appearance group, in which they wrote about their appearance, or a personality group, in which they wrote about their personality. The results confirmed our prediction for women. Among men, the indirect effects were not significant, and focusing on one's own appearance did not increase body surveillance or appearance-contingent self-worth. Since body shame has been associated with pervasive negative consequences, knowledge about its antecedents has practical and theoretical significance.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alba Moya-Garófano
- Mind, Brain and Behavior Research Center (CIMCYC), Department of Social Psychology, University of Granada, Spain
| | - Miguel Moya
- Mind, Brain and Behavior Research Center (CIMCYC), Department of Social Psychology, University of Granada, Spain.
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33
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Ching BHH, Xu JT. Understanding cosmetic surgery consideration in Chinese adolescent girls: Contributions of materialism and sexual objectification. Body Image 2019; 28:6-15. [PMID: 30447417 DOI: 10.1016/j.bodyim.2018.11.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/05/2018] [Revised: 11/03/2018] [Accepted: 11/03/2018] [Indexed: 10/27/2022]
Abstract
Based on objectification theory and the consumer culture impact model, this study examined psychological predictors of cosmetic surgery consideration in 314 Chinese adolescent girls. Path analyses revealed several findings. First, both interpersonal sexual objectification and materialism contributed to internalized appearance ideals, which in turn related to body surveillance, body shame, and facial appearance concerns. Second, the association between materialism and internalized appearance ideals was independent of the association between materialism and interpersonal sexual objectification. Third, internalized appearance ideals were linked to cosmetic surgery consideration via body surveillance and facial appearance concerns. Fourth, while internalized appearance ideals were associated with body shame, body shame did not mediate its association with cosmetic surgery consideration. Fifth, instead of body shame, facial appearance concerns mediated that link between body surveillance and cosmetic surgery consideration as well as the link between internalized appearance ideals and cosmetic surgery consideration. This study provides support to the basic tenets of objectification theory and the consumer culture impact model as applied to Chinese adolescent girls' willingness to consider cosmetic surgery. It suggests that using a measure that is more sensitive to salient cultural concerns is important when attempting to understand body image issues in different cultural contexts.
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Affiliation(s)
- Boby Ho-Hong Ching
- Faculty of Education, University of Macau, Avenida da Universidade, Taipa, Macau, China.
| | - Jason Teng Xu
- Department of East Asian Languages and Cultural Studies, University of California, Santa Barbara, United States
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34
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Sáez G, Valor-Segura I, Expósito F. Interpersonal Sexual Objectification Experiences: Psychological and Social Well-Being Consequences for Women. JOURNAL OF INTERPERSONAL VIOLENCE 2019; 34:741-762. [PMID: 27121386 DOI: 10.1177/0886260516645813] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/10/2023]
Abstract
Sexual objectification as a form of sexist discrimination accounts for the higher prevalence of psychological problems among women. More specifically, sexual objectification manifests itself in different ways with different intensities, in turn affecting women's psychological well-being differently. On one hand, experiences of body evaluation are more subtle and work by perpetuating sexist attitudes among women themselves. On the other hand, more explicit forms of sexual objectification (unwanted explicit sexual advances) are linked to higher levels of anxiety and lower levels of self-esteem. The first study, on a sample of 343 Spanish women, aims to analyze the consequences of different forms of sexual objectification on women's psychological well-being and the effect of sexism and enjoyment of objectification on these consequences. The second study, on a sample of 144 Spanish women, focuses on analyzing the ideological variables that have an effect on response to acts of sexist discrimination. Both studies reveal the significance of the more subtle experiences of sexual objectification as a mechanism that plays a part in keeping women in a subordinate position, where they end up feeling that this process is positive or pleasing.
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35
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Sáez G, Riemer AR, Brock RL, Gervais SJ. Objectification in Heterosexual Romantic Relationships: Examining Relationship Satisfaction of Female Objectification Recipients and Male Objectifying Perpetrators. SEX ROLES 2019. [DOI: 10.1007/s11199-018-0990-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
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36
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Bareket O, Shnabel N, Abeles D, Gervais S, Yuval-Greenberg S. Evidence for an Association between Men’s Spontaneous Objectifying Gazing Behavior and their Endorsement of Objectifying Attitudes toward Women. SEX ROLES 2018. [DOI: 10.1007/s11199-018-0983-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/27/2022]
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37
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Bell BT, Cassarly JA, Dunbar L. Selfie-Objectification: Self-Objectification and Positive Feedback ("Likes") are Associated with Frequency of Posting Sexually Objectifying Self-Images on Social Media. Body Image 2018; 26:83-89. [PMID: 30005293 DOI: 10.1016/j.bodyim.2018.06.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 62] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/30/2017] [Revised: 06/27/2018] [Accepted: 06/27/2018] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
Abstract
The present study is the first to examine the extent to which young adult women post objectifying self-images on social media, and whether the frequency of posting such content can be predicted by self-objectification and positive feedback (likes). Eighty-six young adult women from the UK (Age M = 19.88; SD = 1.34, Range = 18-24) completed self-report measures of self-objectification and social media use. The 20 most recent images they had posted on their personal Instagram accounts were downloaded (Image N = 1720) and content analysed for self-objectifying content. The analysis found that 29.77% of participants' Instagram images were objectified, though there were individual differences. Higher frequency of posting objectified self-images was associated with trait self-objectification and receiving more likes on this type of self-image, relative to non-objectified self-images. The implications of the novel findings for objectification theory are discussed within.
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Affiliation(s)
- Beth T Bell
- School of Psychological and Social Sciences, York St. John University, York, YO31 7EX, United Kingdom
| | - Jennifer A Cassarly
- School of Social Sciences, Humanities and Law, Teesside University, Middlesbrough, TS1 3BA, United Kingdom
| | - Lucy Dunbar
- School of Psychological and Social Sciences, York St. John University, York, YO31 7EX, United Kingdom
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39
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Anderson JR, Holland E, Heldreth C, Johnson SP. Revisiting the Jezebel Stereotype. PSYCHOLOGY OF WOMEN QUARTERLY 2018. [DOI: 10.1177/0361684318791543] [Citation(s) in RCA: 39] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
The overt objectification and dehumanization of Black people has a long history throughout the Western world. However, few researchers have explored whether such perceptions still persist implicitly and whether Black women are sexually objectified at an interpersonal level. We sought to address this gap by exploring whether Black women are sexually objectified to a greater extent than White women and whether target sexualization exacerbates this effect. In Study 1, using eye-tracking technology ( N = 38), we provide evidence that individuals attend more often, and for longer durations, to the sexual body parts of Black women compared to White women, particularly when presented in a sexualized manner. In Studies 2a ( N = 120) and 2b ( N = 131), we demonstrated that Black women are implicitly associated with both animals and objects to a greater degree than White women with a Go/No-Go Association Task. We discuss the implications of such dehumanizing treatment of Black people and Black women in U.S. society. We hope that this evidence will increase awareness that objectification can happen outside the realm of conscious thought and that related interventions ought to include an ethnicity-specific component. Additional online materials for this article, including online slides for instructors who want to use this article for teaching, are available on PWQ's website at http://journals.sagepub.com/page/pwq/suppl/index
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Affiliation(s)
- Joel R. Anderson
- School of Psychology, Australian Catholic University, Victoria, Australia
| | - Elise Holland
- Melbourne School of Psychological Sciences, University of Melbourne, Melbourne, Victoria, Australia
| | - Courtney Heldreth
- Psychology Department, University of California Los Angeles, Los Angeles, CA, USA
| | - Scott P. Johnson
- Psychology Department, University of California Los Angeles, Los Angeles, CA, USA
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40
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Kahalon R, Shnabel N, Becker JC. Experimental Studies on State Self-Objectification: A Review and an Integrative Process Model. Front Psychol 2018; 9:1268. [PMID: 30150946 PMCID: PMC6099106 DOI: 10.3389/fpsyg.2018.01268] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/18/2017] [Accepted: 07/02/2018] [Indexed: 11/25/2022] Open
Abstract
This paper provides an organizing framework for the experimental research on the effects of state self-objectification on women. We explain why this body of work, which had grown rapidly in the last 20 years, departs from the original formulation of objectification theory (Fredrickson and Roberts, 1997). We compare the different operationalizations of state self-objectification and examine how they map onto its theoretical definition, concluding that the operationalizations have focused mostly on one component of this construct (concerns about one's physical appearance) while neglecting others (adopting a third-person perspective and treating oneself as a dehumanized object). We review the main findings of studies that experimentally induced state self-objectification and examined its affective, motivational, behavioral, cognitive, and physiological outcomes. We note that three core outcomes of this state as specified by objectification theory (safety anxiety, reduced flow experiences, and awareness of internal body states) have hardly been examined so far. Most importantly, we introduce an integrative process model, suggesting that the reported effects are triggered by four different mechanisms: appearance monitoring, experience of discrepancy from appearance standards, stereotype threat, and activation of the "sex object" schema. We propose strategies for distinguishing between these mechanisms and explain the theoretical and practical importance of doing so.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rotem Kahalon
- Tel-Aviv University, The School of Psychological Science, Tel-Aviv, Israel
| | - Nurit Shnabel
- Tel-Aviv University, The School of Psychological Science, Tel-Aviv, Israel
| | - Julia C. Becker
- School of Human Science, Institute of Psychology, Osnabrück University, Osnabrück, Germany
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41
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Bernard P, Gervais SJ, Klein O. Objectifying objectification: When and why people are cognitively reduced to their parts akin to objects. EUROPEAN REVIEW OF SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY 2018. [DOI: 10.1080/10463283.2018.1471949] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/14/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Philippe Bernard
- Center for Social and Cultural Psychology, Université Libre de Bruxelles, Bruxelles, Belgium
| | - Sarah J. Gervais
- Department of Psychology, University of Nebraska-Lincoln, Lincoln, US
| | - Olivier Klein
- Center for Social and Cultural Psychology, Université Libre de Bruxelles, Bruxelles, Belgium
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42
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Andrighetto L, Baldissarri C, Gabbiadini A, Sacino A, Valtorta RR, Volpato C. Objectified conformity: working self-objectification increases conforming behavior. SOCIAL INFLUENCE 2018. [DOI: 10.1080/15534510.2018.1439769] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/18/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Luca Andrighetto
- Department of Educational Sciences, University of Genoa, Genova, Italy
| | | | | | - Alessandra Sacino
- Department of Educational Sciences, University of Genoa, Genova, Italy
| | | | - Chiara Volpato
- Department of Psychology, University of Milano-Bicocca, Milan, Italy
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Teng F, Wang X, Yang Y. Sexual objectification decreases women’s experiential consumption (but not material consumption). SOCIAL INFLUENCE 2017. [DOI: 10.1080/15534510.2017.1378126] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/18/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Fei Teng
- School of Psychology, Center for Studies of Psychological Application, Guangdong Key Laboratory of Mental Health and Cognitive Science, The Base of Psychological Services and Counseling for ‘Happiness’ in Guangzhou, South China Normal University, Guangzhou, China
| | - Xue Wang
- Department of Marketing, CUHK Business School, Chinese University of Hong Kong, Shatin, Hong Kong
| | - Ye Yang
- School of Humanities, Changshu Institute of Technology, Changshu, China
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44
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Rollero C, De Piccoli N. Self-Objectification and Personal Values. An Exploratory Study. Front Psychol 2017; 8:1055. [PMID: 28690577 PMCID: PMC5482001 DOI: 10.3389/fpsyg.2017.01055] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/21/2017] [Accepted: 06/08/2017] [Indexed: 12/02/2022] Open
Abstract
Self-objectification occurs when individuals treat themselves as objects to be viewed and evaluated based upon appearance. Literature has largely elucidated links between self-objectification and damaging outcomes in both men and women. The purpose of the present study was to extend past research on the antecedents of self-objectification. We were interested in the role played by specific ideological components, i.e., higher order personal values (self-enhancement, conservation, self-transcendence, and openness to change), in influencing the degree to which individuals internalize the objectifying perspective of the Western cultural milieu, i.e., self-objectify. Undergraduate participants (N = 371, 76.8% women) completed measures of self-objectification (i.e., body surveillance and body shame), and endorsement of higher order values. Regression analyses demonstrated that self-enhancement is linked to higher self-objectification in both men and women, whereas conservation is related only to women’s body surveillance. Self-transcendence seemed to act as a buffer against men’s body surveillance, whereas openness to change resulted as a buffer against women’s body surveillance. Implications are discusses.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chiara Rollero
- Facoltà di Psicologia, Università degli Studi eCampusNovedrate, Italy
| | - Norma De Piccoli
- Dipartimento di Psicologia, Università degli Studi di TorinoTurin, Italy
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45
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Calogero RM, Tylka TL, Donnelly LC, McGetrick A, Leger AM. Trappings of femininity: A test of the "beauty as currency" hypothesis in shaping college women's gender activism. Body Image 2017; 21:66-70. [PMID: 28315810 DOI: 10.1016/j.bodyim.2017.02.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 52] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/05/2016] [Revised: 02/22/2017] [Accepted: 02/22/2017] [Indexed: 10/19/2022]
Abstract
This study investigated whether believing beauty is a primary currency for women operates as an antecedent force in the relation between self-objectification and gender activism. Ninety-four ethnically diverse women attending a small liberal arts college in the southeastern United States completed the study questionnaires online for course credit. Preliminary results demonstrated beauty as currency belief, self-objectification, and support for the gender status quo were negatively associated with gender activism. A serial mediation analysis revealed support for the proposed model: Beauty as currency belief was indirectly and inversely linked to gender activism through self-objectification and support for the gender status quo, offering initial evidence for our beauty as currency hypothesis. These findings suggest belief in the notion women will reap more benefits from their bodies than other attributes or pursuits may be an important legitimizing feature of feminine beauty ideology that works through self-objectification against gender social change.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Tracy L Tylka
- Department of Psychology, The Ohio State University, USA
| | | | - Amber McGetrick
- Department of Industrial Organizational Psychology, Radford University, USA
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46
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Awasthi B. From Attire to Assault: Clothing, Objectification, and De-humanization - A Possible Prelude to Sexual Violence? Front Psychol 2017; 8:338. [PMID: 28344565 PMCID: PMC5344900 DOI: 10.3389/fpsyg.2017.00338] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/29/2016] [Accepted: 02/22/2017] [Indexed: 11/21/2022] Open
Abstract
In the context of objectification and violence, little attention has been paid to the perception neuroscience of how the human brain perceives bodies and objectifies them. Various studies point to how external cues such as appearance and attire could play a key role in encouraging objectification, dehumanization and the denial of agency. Reviewing new experimental findings across several areas of research, it seems that common threads run through issues of clothing, sexual objectification, body perception, dehumanization, and assault. Collating findings from several different lines of research, this article reviews additional evidence from cognitive and neural dynamics of person perception (body and face perception processes) that predict downstream social behavior. Specifically, new findings demonstrate cognitive processing of sexualized female bodies as object-like, a crucial aspect of dehumanized percept devoid of agency and personhood. Sexual violence is a consequence of a dehumanized perception of female bodies that aggressors acquire through their exposure and interpretation of objectified body images. Integrating these findings and identifying triggers for sexual violence may help develop remedial measures and inform law enforcement processes and policy makers alike.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bhuvanesh Awasthi
- Institute of Neuroscience and Psychology, University of GlasgowGlasgow, UK; Epistemic ConsultantsNew Delhi, India
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47
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Guizzo F, Cadinu M. Effects of objectifying gaze on female cognitive performance: The role of flow experience and internalization of beauty ideals. BRITISH JOURNAL OF SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY 2016; 56:281-292. [PMID: 27800628 DOI: 10.1111/bjso.12170] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/31/2016] [Revised: 09/28/2016] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
Although previous research has demonstrated that objectification impairs female cognitive performance, no research to date has investigated the mechanisms underlying such decrement. Therefore, we tested the role of flow experience as one mechanism leading to performance decrement under sexual objectification. Gaze gender was manipulated by having male versus female experimenters take body pictures of female participants (N = 107) who then performed a Sustained Attention to Response Task. As predicted, a moderated mediation model showed that under male versus female gaze, higher internalization of beauty ideals was associated with lower flow, which in turn decreased performance. The implications of these results are discussed in relation to objectification theory and strategies to prevent sexually objectifying experiences.
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Affiliation(s)
- Francesca Guizzo
- Department of Developmental Psychology and Socialization, University of Padova, Italy
| | - Mara Cadinu
- Department of General Psychology, University of Padova, Italy
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48
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Tyler JM, Calogero RM, Adams KE. Perpetuation of sexual objectification: The role of resource depletion. BRITISH JOURNAL OF SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY 2016; 56:334-353. [PMID: 27600438 DOI: 10.1111/bjso.12157] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/26/2016] [Revised: 07/11/2016] [Indexed: 10/21/2022]
Abstract
Women are sexually objectified when viewed and treated by others as mere objects. Abundant research has examined the negative consequences of being the target of sexual objectification; however, limited attention has focused on the person doing the objectification. Our focus is on the agent and how self-regulatory resources influence sexual objectification. Consistent with prior evidence, we reasoned that people have a well-learned automatic response to objectify sexualized women, and as such, we expected objectifying a sexualized (vs. personalized) woman would deplete fewer regulatory resources than not objectifying her. Findings across three studies confirmed our expectations, demonstrating the extent to which people objectify a sexualized woman or not is influenced by the availability of regulatory resources, a case that heretofore has been absent from the literature. These patterns are discussed in the context of the sexual objectification and self-regulation literature.
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Affiliation(s)
- James M Tyler
- Department of Psychological Sciences, Purdue University, West Lafayette, Indiana, USA
| | - Rachel M Calogero
- School of Psychology, Keynes College, University of Kent, Canterbury, UK
| | - Katherine E Adams
- Department of Psychological Sciences, Purdue University, West Lafayette, Indiana, USA
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Holland E, Koval P, Stratemeyer M, Thomson F, Haslam N. Sexual objectification in women's daily lives: A smartphone ecological momentary assessment study. BRITISH JOURNAL OF SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY 2016; 56:314-333. [DOI: 10.1111/bjso.12152] [Citation(s) in RCA: 55] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/29/2016] [Revised: 06/29/2016] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Elise Holland
- Melbourne School of Psychological Sciences University of Melbourne ParkvilleVictoria Australia
| | - Peter Koval
- School of Psychology Australian Catholic University Fitzroy Victoria Australia
- Research Group of Quantitative Psychology and Individual Differences KU Leuven Belgium
| | - Michelle Stratemeyer
- Melbourne School of Psychological Sciences University of Melbourne ParkvilleVictoria Australia
| | - Fiona Thomson
- School of Psychology Australian Catholic University Fitzroy Victoria Australia
| | - Nick Haslam
- Melbourne School of Psychological Sciences University of Melbourne ParkvilleVictoria Australia
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50
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Situational cuing of materialism triggers self-objectification among women (but not men): The moderating role of self-concept clarity. PERSONALITY AND INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES 2016. [DOI: 10.1016/j.paid.2016.03.066] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
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