4
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Cottrell S, Torres E, Harris PL, Ronfard S. Older children verify adult claims because they are skeptical of those claims. Child Dev 2023; 94:172-186. [PMID: 36093603 DOI: 10.1111/cdev.13847] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/24/2022]
Abstract
We investigated children's information seeking in response to a surprising claim (Study 1, N = 109, 54 Female, Range = 4.02-6.94 years, 49% White, 21% Mixed Ethnicity, 19% Southeast Asian, September 2019-March 2020; Study 2, N = 154, 74 Female, Range = 4.09-7.99, 50% White, 20% Mixed Ethnicity, 17% Southeast Asian, September 2020-December 2020). Relative to younger children, older children more often expressed skepticism about the adult's surprising claims (1-year increase, OR = 2.70) and more often suggested exploration strategies appropriate for testing the specific claim they heard (1-year increase, OR = 1.42). Controlling for age, recommending more targeted exploration strategies was associated with a greater likelihood of expressing skepticism about the adult's claim.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Eric Torres
- Harvard Graduate School of Education, Cambridge, Massachusetts, USA
| | - Paul L Harris
- Harvard Graduate School of Education, Cambridge, Massachusetts, USA
| | - Samuel Ronfard
- University of Toronto Mississauga, Mississauga, Ontario, Canada
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5
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Dore RA, Woolley J, Nissel J, Hixon JG. Never trust a stranger: Effects of explicit belief statements from strangers on children's reality status beliefs and beliefs about consensus. BRITISH JOURNAL OF DEVELOPMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY 2022; 41:117-127. [PMID: 36397277 DOI: 10.1111/bjdp.12437] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/03/2022] [Revised: 10/26/2022] [Accepted: 11/09/2022] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
Children learn about much of the world through testimony and may hear explicit belief statements (e.g., "I believe in God" or "climate change is real") about entities whose existence is controversial. Prior research has shown that these statements, when spoken by a parent, influence children's beliefs about the reality status of the entity and their beliefs about societal consensus surrounding that reality status, in contrast to statements that only imply belief (e.g., "God lives in heaven"; Dore et al., 2019, Journal of Cognition and Development, 20, 35), suggesting that children are attuned to the nature of parental statements about reality. In the current study, we tested whether explicit versus implicit belief statements from strangers differentially affect children's beliefs. We followed procedures by Dore et al. (2019, Journal of Cognition and Development, 20, 35) but used strangers to provide testimony rather than parents. Results showed that explicit belief statements from strangers did not influence children's beliefs. This lack of an effect of explicit belief statements relative to implicit ones suggests that, despite being attuned to these statements when spoken by parents, children may not be attuned to explicit statements about reality that they hear from strangers. Although even very young children often learn words and other facts from unfamiliar speakers, these findings suggest that nuances perceived in parent speech about reality may not be picked up in the speech of strangers.
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6
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Seitz RJ, Angel HF, Paloutzian RF, Taves A. Believing and social interactions: effects on bodily expressions and personal narratives. Front Behav Neurosci 2022; 16:894219. [PMID: 36275855 PMCID: PMC9584167 DOI: 10.3389/fnbeh.2022.894219] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/11/2022] [Accepted: 09/12/2022] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
The processes of believing integrate external perceptual information from the environment with internal emotional states and prior experience to generate probabilistic neural representations of events, i.e., beliefs. As these neural representations manifest mostly below the level of a person's conscious awareness, they may inadvertently affect the spontaneous person's bodily expressions and prospective behavior. By yet to be understood mechanisms people can become aware of these representations and reflect upon them. Typically, people can communicate the content of their beliefs as personal statements and can summarize the narratives of others to themselves or to other people. Here, we describe that social interactions may benefit from the consistency between a person's bodily expressions and verbal statements because the person appears authentic and ultimately trustworthy. The transmission of narratives can thus lay the groundwork for social cooperation within and between groups and, ultimately, between communities and nations. Conversely, a discrepancy between bodily expressions and narratives may cause distrust in the addressee(s) and eventually may destroy social bonds.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rüdiger J. Seitz
- Department of Neurology, Centre of Neurology and Neuropsychiatry, LVR-Klinikum Düsseldorf, Medical Faculty, Heinrich-Heine-University Düsseldorf, Düsseldorf, Germany
| | - Hans-Ferdinand Angel
- Institute of Catechetic and Pedagogic of Religion, Karl Franzens University Graz, Graz, Austria
| | | | - Ann Taves
- Department of Religious Studies, University of California, Santa Barbara, CA, United States
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9
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Madad S, Davis NJ, Adams A, Rosenstock P, Dhagat P, Kalyanaraman Marcello R. Building Confidence in COVID-19 Vaccines Through Effective Communication. Health Secur 2021; 20:92-95. [PMID: 34919473 DOI: 10.1089/hs.2021.0180] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Affiliation(s)
- Syra Madad
- Syra Madad, DHSc, MSc, is Senior Director, System-Wide Special Pathogens Program, and Lead, COVID-19 Vaccine Communications and Outreach Workgroup, Central Office Emergency Management; Nichola J. Davis, MD, MS, is Vice President and Chief Population Health Officer, Office of Ambulatory Care and Population Health; Philip Rosenstock, MD, is a System Clinical Integration Officer, Office of Medical and Professional Affairs; Priya Dhagat, MS, MLS, CIC, is Associate Director, System-Wide Special Pathogens Program, Central Office Emergency Management; and Roopa Kalyanaraman Marcello, MPH, is Senior Director, Research and Evaluation, Office of Ambulatory Care and Population Health; all at New York City Health + Hospitals, New York, NY. Nichola J. Davis is also a Clinical Professor, Department of Population Health, and Ayrenne Adams, MD, MPH, is a Clinical Assistant Professor, Department of Medicine; both at NYU Grossman School of Medicine, New York, NY
| | - Nichola J Davis
- Syra Madad, DHSc, MSc, is Senior Director, System-Wide Special Pathogens Program, and Lead, COVID-19 Vaccine Communications and Outreach Workgroup, Central Office Emergency Management; Nichola J. Davis, MD, MS, is Vice President and Chief Population Health Officer, Office of Ambulatory Care and Population Health; Philip Rosenstock, MD, is a System Clinical Integration Officer, Office of Medical and Professional Affairs; Priya Dhagat, MS, MLS, CIC, is Associate Director, System-Wide Special Pathogens Program, Central Office Emergency Management; and Roopa Kalyanaraman Marcello, MPH, is Senior Director, Research and Evaluation, Office of Ambulatory Care and Population Health; all at New York City Health + Hospitals, New York, NY. Nichola J. Davis is also a Clinical Professor, Department of Population Health, and Ayrenne Adams, MD, MPH, is a Clinical Assistant Professor, Department of Medicine; both at NYU Grossman School of Medicine, New York, NY
| | - Ayrenne Adams
- Syra Madad, DHSc, MSc, is Senior Director, System-Wide Special Pathogens Program, and Lead, COVID-19 Vaccine Communications and Outreach Workgroup, Central Office Emergency Management; Nichola J. Davis, MD, MS, is Vice President and Chief Population Health Officer, Office of Ambulatory Care and Population Health; Philip Rosenstock, MD, is a System Clinical Integration Officer, Office of Medical and Professional Affairs; Priya Dhagat, MS, MLS, CIC, is Associate Director, System-Wide Special Pathogens Program, Central Office Emergency Management; and Roopa Kalyanaraman Marcello, MPH, is Senior Director, Research and Evaluation, Office of Ambulatory Care and Population Health; all at New York City Health + Hospitals, New York, NY. Nichola J. Davis is also a Clinical Professor, Department of Population Health, and Ayrenne Adams, MD, MPH, is a Clinical Assistant Professor, Department of Medicine; both at NYU Grossman School of Medicine, New York, NY
| | - Philip Rosenstock
- Syra Madad, DHSc, MSc, is Senior Director, System-Wide Special Pathogens Program, and Lead, COVID-19 Vaccine Communications and Outreach Workgroup, Central Office Emergency Management; Nichola J. Davis, MD, MS, is Vice President and Chief Population Health Officer, Office of Ambulatory Care and Population Health; Philip Rosenstock, MD, is a System Clinical Integration Officer, Office of Medical and Professional Affairs; Priya Dhagat, MS, MLS, CIC, is Associate Director, System-Wide Special Pathogens Program, Central Office Emergency Management; and Roopa Kalyanaraman Marcello, MPH, is Senior Director, Research and Evaluation, Office of Ambulatory Care and Population Health; all at New York City Health + Hospitals, New York, NY. Nichola J. Davis is also a Clinical Professor, Department of Population Health, and Ayrenne Adams, MD, MPH, is a Clinical Assistant Professor, Department of Medicine; both at NYU Grossman School of Medicine, New York, NY
| | - Priya Dhagat
- Syra Madad, DHSc, MSc, is Senior Director, System-Wide Special Pathogens Program, and Lead, COVID-19 Vaccine Communications and Outreach Workgroup, Central Office Emergency Management; Nichola J. Davis, MD, MS, is Vice President and Chief Population Health Officer, Office of Ambulatory Care and Population Health; Philip Rosenstock, MD, is a System Clinical Integration Officer, Office of Medical and Professional Affairs; Priya Dhagat, MS, MLS, CIC, is Associate Director, System-Wide Special Pathogens Program, Central Office Emergency Management; and Roopa Kalyanaraman Marcello, MPH, is Senior Director, Research and Evaluation, Office of Ambulatory Care and Population Health; all at New York City Health + Hospitals, New York, NY. Nichola J. Davis is also a Clinical Professor, Department of Population Health, and Ayrenne Adams, MD, MPH, is a Clinical Assistant Professor, Department of Medicine; both at NYU Grossman School of Medicine, New York, NY
| | - Roopa Kalyanaraman Marcello
- Syra Madad, DHSc, MSc, is Senior Director, System-Wide Special Pathogens Program, and Lead, COVID-19 Vaccine Communications and Outreach Workgroup, Central Office Emergency Management; Nichola J. Davis, MD, MS, is Vice President and Chief Population Health Officer, Office of Ambulatory Care and Population Health; Philip Rosenstock, MD, is a System Clinical Integration Officer, Office of Medical and Professional Affairs; Priya Dhagat, MS, MLS, CIC, is Associate Director, System-Wide Special Pathogens Program, Central Office Emergency Management; and Roopa Kalyanaraman Marcello, MPH, is Senior Director, Research and Evaluation, Office of Ambulatory Care and Population Health; all at New York City Health + Hospitals, New York, NY. Nichola J. Davis is also a Clinical Professor, Department of Population Health, and Ayrenne Adams, MD, MPH, is a Clinical Assistant Professor, Department of Medicine; both at NYU Grossman School of Medicine, New York, NY
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13
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Pillai RM, Fazio LK. The effects of repeating false and misleading information on belief. WILEY INTERDISCIPLINARY REVIEWS. COGNITIVE SCIENCE 2021; 12:e1573. [PMID: 34423562 DOI: 10.1002/wcs.1573] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/28/2020] [Revised: 07/20/2021] [Accepted: 07/22/2021] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
Abstract
False and misleading information is readily accessible in people's environments, oftentimes reaching people repeatedly. This repeated exposure can significantly affect people's beliefs about the world, as has been noted by scholars in political science, communication, and cognitive, developmental, and social psychology. In particular, repetition increases belief in false information, even when the misinformation contradicts prior knowledge. We review work across these disciplines, identifying factors that may heighten, diminish, or have no impact on these adverse effects of repetition on belief. Specifically, we organize our discussion around variations in what information is repeated, to whom the information is repeated, how people interact with this repetition, and how people's beliefs are measured. A key cross-disciplinary theme is that the most influential factor is how carefully or critically people process the false information. However, several open questions remain when comparing findings across different fields and approaches. We conclude by noting a need for more interdisciplinary work to help resolve these questions, as well as a need for more work in naturalistic settings so that we can better understand and combat the effects of repeated circulation of false and misleading information in society. This article is categorized under: Psychology > Memory Psychology > Reasoning and Decision Making.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Lisa K Fazio
- Vanderbilt University, Nashville, Tennessee, USA
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14
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Hassan A, Barber SJ. The effects of repetition frequency on the illusory truth effect. COGNITIVE RESEARCH-PRINCIPLES AND IMPLICATIONS 2021; 6:38. [PMID: 33983553 PMCID: PMC8116821 DOI: 10.1186/s41235-021-00301-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/29/2020] [Accepted: 04/28/2021] [Indexed: 11/10/2022]
Abstract
Repeated information is often perceived as more truthful than new information. This finding is known as the illusory truth effect, and it is typically thought to occur because repetition increases processing fluency. Because fluency and truth are frequently correlated in the real world, people learn to use processing fluency as a marker for truthfulness. Although the illusory truth effect is a robust phenomenon, almost all studies examining it have used three or fewer repetitions. To address this limitation, we conducted two experiments using a larger number of repetitions. In Experiment 1, we showed participants trivia statements up to 9 times and in Experiment 2 statements were shown up to 27 times. Later, participants rated the truthfulness of the previously seen statements and of new statements. In both experiments, we found that perceived truthfulness increased as the number of repetitions increased. However, these truth rating increases were logarithmic in shape. The largest increase in perceived truth came from encountering a statement for the second time, and beyond this were incrementally smaller increases in perceived truth for each additional repetition. These findings add to our theoretical understanding of the illusory truth effect and have applications for advertising, politics, and the propagation of "fake news."
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Affiliation(s)
- Aumyo Hassan
- Department of Psychology, San Francisco State University, 1600 Holloway Avenue, Ethnic Studies & Psychology Building, San Francisco, 94132, California, USA
| | - Sarah J Barber
- Department of Psychology, Georgia State University, P.O. Box 5010, Atlanta, GA, 30302, USA.
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