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Pinto A, Botelho MJ, Churro C, Asselman J, Pereira P, Pereira JL. A review on aquatic toxins - Do we really know it all regarding the environmental risk posed by phytoplankton neurotoxins? JOURNAL OF ENVIRONMENTAL MANAGEMENT 2023; 345:118769. [PMID: 37597370 DOI: 10.1016/j.jenvman.2023.118769] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/28/2023] [Revised: 07/24/2023] [Accepted: 08/09/2023] [Indexed: 08/21/2023]
Abstract
Aquatic toxins are potent natural toxins produced by certain cyanobacteria and marine algae species during harmful cyanobacterial and algal blooms (CyanoHABs and HABs, respectively). These harmful bloom events and the toxins produced during these events are a human and environmental health concern worldwide, with occurrence, frequency and severity of CyanoHABs and HABs being predicted to keep increasing due to ongoing climate change scenarios. These contexts, as well as human health consequences of some toxins produced during bloom events have been thoroughly reviewed before. Conversely, the wider picture that includes the non-human biota in the assessment of noxious effects of toxins is much less covered in the literature and barely covered by review works. Despite direct human exposure to aquatic toxins and related deleterious effects being responsible for the majority of the public attention to the blooms' problematic, it constitutes a very limited fraction of the real environmental risk posed by these toxins. The disruption of ecological and trophic interactions caused by these toxins in the aquatic biota building on deleterious effects they may induce in different species is paramount as a modulator of the overall magnitude of the environmental risk potentially involved, thus necessarily constraining the quality and efficiency of the management strategies that should be placed. In this way, this review aims at updating and consolidating current knowledge regarding the adverse effects of aquatic toxins, attempting to going beyond their main toxicity pathways in human and related models' health, i.e., also focusing on ecologically relevant model organisms. For conciseness and considering the severity in terms of documented human health risks as a reference, we restricted the detailed revision work to neurotoxic cyanotoxins and marine toxins. This comprehensive revision of the systemic effects of aquatic neurotoxins provides a broad overview of the exposure and the hazard that these compounds pose to human and environmental health. Regulatory approaches they are given worldwide, as well as (eco)toxicity data available were hence thoroughly reviewed. Critical research gaps were identified particularly regarding (i) the toxic effects other than those typical of the recognized disease/disorder each toxin causes following acute exposure in humans and also in other biota; and (ii) alternative detection tools capable of being early-warning signals for aquatic toxins occurrence and therefore provide better human and environmental safety insurance. Future directions on aquatic toxins research are discussed in face of the existent knowledge, with particular emphasis on the much-needed development and implementation of effective alternative (eco)toxicological biomarkers for these toxins. The wide-spanning approach followed herein will hopefully stimulate future research more broadly addressing the environmental hazardous potential of aquatic toxins.
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Affiliation(s)
- Albano Pinto
- CESAM - Centre for Environmental and Marine Studies, Department of Biology, University of Aveiro, Portugal.
| | - Maria João Botelho
- IPMA, Portuguese Institute for the Sea and Atmosphere, Av. Alfredo Magalhães Ramalho 6, 1495-165, Algés, Portugal; CIIMAR, Interdisciplinary Centre of Marine and Environmental Research, University of Porto, Terminal de Cruzeiros do Porto, Av. General Norton de Matos s/n, 4450-208, Matosinhos, Portugal
| | - Catarina Churro
- IPMA, Portuguese Institute for the Sea and Atmosphere, Av. Alfredo Magalhães Ramalho 6, 1495-165, Algés, Portugal; CIIMAR, Interdisciplinary Centre of Marine and Environmental Research, University of Porto, Terminal de Cruzeiros do Porto, Av. General Norton de Matos s/n, 4450-208, Matosinhos, Portugal
| | - Jana Asselman
- Blue Growth Research Lab, Ghent University, Bluebridge Building, Ostend Science Park 1, 8400, Ostend, Belgium
| | - Patrícia Pereira
- CESAM - Centre for Environmental and Marine Studies, Department of Biology, University of Aveiro, Portugal
| | - Joana Luísa Pereira
- CESAM - Centre for Environmental and Marine Studies, Department of Biology, University of Aveiro, Portugal
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Otero P, Silva M. Emerging Marine Biotoxins in European Waters: Potential Risks and Analytical Challenges. Mar Drugs 2022; 20:199. [PMID: 35323498 PMCID: PMC8955394 DOI: 10.3390/md20030199] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/22/2022] [Revised: 02/15/2022] [Accepted: 03/05/2022] [Indexed: 01/21/2023] Open
Abstract
Harmful algal blooms pose a challenge regarding food safety due to their erratic nature and forming circumstances which are yet to be disclosed. The best strategy to protect human consumers is through legislation and monitoring strategies. Global warming and anthropological intervention aided the migration and establishment of emerging toxin producers into Europe's temperate waters, creating a new threat to human public health. The lack of information, standards, and reference materials delay effective solutions, being a matter of urgent resolution. In this work, the recent findings of the presence of emerging azaspiracids, spirolildes, pinnatoxins, gymnodimines, palitoxins, ciguatoxins, brevetoxins, and tetrodotoxins on European Coasts are addressed. The information concerning emerging toxins such as new matrices, locations, and toxicity assays is paramount to set the risk assessment guidelines, regulatory levels, and analytical methodology that would protect the consumers.
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Affiliation(s)
- Paz Otero
- Department of Pharmacology, Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical Technology, Faculty of Veterinary Science, Universidade de Santiago de Compostela, 27002 Lugo, Spain
| | - Marisa Silva
- MARE—Marine and Environmental Sciences Centre, Faculty of Sciences, University of Lisbon, Campo Grande, 1749-016 Lisbon, Portugal
- Department of Plant Biology, Faculty of Sciences, University of Lisbon, Campo Grande, 1749-016 Lisbon, Portugal
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Lazensky R, Hunter ME, Moraga Amador D, Al-Khedery B, Yu F, Walsh C, Gitzendanner MA, Tripp K, Walsh MT, Denslow ND. Investigating the gene expression profiles of rehabilitated Florida manatees (Trichechus manatus latirostris) following red tide exposure. PLoS One 2020; 15:e0234150. [PMID: 32614830 PMCID: PMC7331979 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0234150] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/14/2020] [Accepted: 05/19/2020] [Indexed: 01/14/2023] Open
Abstract
To investigate a Florida manatee (Trichechus manatus latirostris) mortality event following a red tide bloom in Southwest Florida, an RNA sequencing experiment was conducted. Gene expression changes in white blood cells were assessed in manatees rescued from a red tide affected area (n = 4) and a control group (n = 7) using RNA sequencing. The genes with the largest fold changes were compared between the two groups to identify molecular pathways related to cellular and disease processes. In total, 591 genes (false discovery rate <0.05) were differentially expressed in the red tide group. Of these, 158 were upregulated and 433 were downregulated. This suggests major changes in white blood cell composition following an exposure to red tide. The most highly upregulated gene, Osteoclast associated 2C immunoglobulin-like receptor (OSCAR), was upregulated 12-fold. This gene is involved in initiating the immune response and maintaining a role in adaptive and innate immunity. The most highly downregulated gene, Piccolo presynaptic cytomatrix protein (PCLO), was downregulated by a factor of 977-fold. This gene is associated with cognitive functioning and neurotransmitter release. Downregulation of this gene in other studies was associated with neuronal loss and neuron synapse dysfunction. Among the cellular pathways that were most affected, immune response, including inflammation, wounds and injuries, cell proliferation, and apoptosis were the most predominant. The pathway with the most differentially expressed genes was the immune response pathway with 98 genes involved, many of them downregulated. Assessing the changes in gene expression associated with red tide exposure enhances our understanding of manatee immune response to the red tide toxins and will aid in the development of red tide biomarkers.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rebecca Lazensky
- Department of Physiological Sciences and Center for Environmental & Human Toxicology, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida, United States of America
- Aquatic Animal Health Program, College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida, United States of America
| | - Margaret E. Hunter
- Wetland and Aquatic Research Center, U. S. Geological Survey, Sirenia Project, Gainesville, Florida, United States of America
| | - David Moraga Amador
- Interdisciplinary Center for Biotechnology Research, Gainesville, Florida, United States of America
| | - Basima Al-Khedery
- Interdisciplinary Center for Biotechnology Research, Gainesville, Florida, United States of America
| | - Fahong Yu
- Interdisciplinary Center for Biotechnology Research, Gainesville, Florida, United States of America
| | - Cathy Walsh
- Mote Marine Laboratory, Sarasota, Florida, United States of America
| | - Matthew A. Gitzendanner
- Department of Biology, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida, United States of America
- Florida Museum of Natural History, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida, United States of America
| | - Katie Tripp
- Save the Manatee Club, Maitland, Florida, United States of America
| | - Michael T. Walsh
- Aquatic Animal Health Program, College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida, United States of America
- Large Animal Clinical Sciences, College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida, United States of America
- * E-mail: (NDD); (MTW)
| | - Nancy D. Denslow
- Department of Physiological Sciences and Center for Environmental & Human Toxicology, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida, United States of America
- * E-mail: (NDD); (MTW)
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Immune effects of the neurotoxins ciguatoxins and brevetoxins. Toxicon 2018; 149:6-19. [PMID: 29360534 DOI: 10.1016/j.toxicon.2018.01.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/30/2017] [Revised: 12/27/2017] [Accepted: 01/04/2018] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
Abstract
Ciguatoxins (CTXs) and brevetoxins (PbTxs) are phycotoxins that can accumulate along the marine food chain and thus cause seafood poisoning in humans, namely "ciguatera fish poisoning" (CFP) and "neurotoxic shellfish poisoning" (NSP), respectively. CFP is characterized by early gastrointestinal symptoms and typical sensory disorders (paraesthesia, pain, pruritus and cold dysaesthesia), which can persist several weeks and, in some cases, several months or years. NSP is considered a mild form of CFP with similar but less severe symptoms. After inhaled exposure, PbTxs can also cause respiratory tract irritation in healthy subjects and asthma exacerbations in predisposed subjects, whose respiratory functions may be disrupted for several days following PbTx inhalation. Mechanistically, it is well established that CTX- or PbTx-induced disturbances are primarily mainly due to voltage-gated sodium channel activation in sensory and motor peripheral nervous system. However, little is known about the pathophysiology or a potential individual susceptibility to long lasting effects of CFP/NSP. In addition to their action on the nervous system, PbTxs and CTXs were also shown to exert effects on the immune system. However, their role in the pathophysiology of syndromes induced by CTX or PbTx exposure is poorly documented. The aim of this review is to inventory the literature thus far on the inflammatory and immune effects of PbTxs and CTXs.
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Gonzalez-Romero R, Suarez-Ulloa V, Rodriguez-Casariego J, Garcia-Souto D, Diaz G, Smith A, Pasantes JJ, Rand G, Eirin-Lopez JM. Effects of Florida Red Tides on histone variant expression and DNA methylation in the Eastern oyster Crassostrea virginica. AQUATIC TOXICOLOGY (AMSTERDAM, NETHERLANDS) 2017; 186:196-204. [PMID: 28315825 DOI: 10.1016/j.aquatox.2017.03.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/02/2016] [Revised: 03/02/2017] [Accepted: 03/03/2017] [Indexed: 06/06/2023]
Abstract
Massive algal proliferations known as Harmful Algal Blooms (HABs) represent one of the most important threats to coastal areas. Among them, the so-called Florida Red Tides (FRTs, caused by blooms of the dinoflagellate Karenia brevis and associated brevetoxins) are particularly detrimental in the southeastern U.S., causing high mortality rates and annual losses in excess of $40 million. The ability of marine organisms to cope with environmental stressors (including those produced during HABs) is influenced by genetic and epigenetic mechanisms, the latter resulting in phenotypic changes caused by heritable modifications in gene expression, without involving changes in the genetic (DNA) sequence. Yet, studies examining cause-effect relationships between environmental stressors, specific epigenetic mechanisms and subsequent responses are still lacking. The present work contributes to increase this knowledge by investigating the effects of Florida Red Tides on two types of mechanisms participating in the epigenetic memory of Eastern oysters: histone variants and DNA methylation. For that purpose, a HAB simulation was conducted in laboratory conditions, exposing oysters to increasing concentrations of K. brevis. The obtained results revealed, for the first time, the existence of H2A.X, H2A.Z and macroH2A genes in this organism, encoding histone variants potentially involved in the maintenance of genome integrity during responses to the genotoxic effect of brevetoxins. Additionally, an increase in H2A.X phosphorylation (γH2A.X, a marker of DNA damage) and a decrease in global DNA methylation were observed as the HAB simulation progressed. Overall, the present work provides a basis to better understand how epigenetic mechanisms participate in responses to environmental stress in marine invertebrates, opening new avenues to incorporate environmental epigenetics approaches into management and conservation programs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rodrigo Gonzalez-Romero
- Environmental Epigenetics Group, Department of Biological Sciences, Florida International University, North Miami, FL 33181, USA
| | - Victoria Suarez-Ulloa
- Environmental Epigenetics Group, Department of Biological Sciences, Florida International University, North Miami, FL 33181, USA
| | - Javier Rodriguez-Casariego
- Environmental Epigenetics Group, Department of Biological Sciences, Florida International University, North Miami, FL 33181, USA; Ecotoxicology and Risk Assessment Laboratory, Southeast Environmental Research Center, Florida International University, North Miami, FL 33181, USA
| | - Daniel Garcia-Souto
- Departamento de Bioquimica, Xenetica e Inmunoloxia, Universidade de Vigo, E-36310 Vigo, Spain
| | - Gabriel Diaz
- Environmental Epigenetics Group, Department of Biological Sciences, Florida International University, North Miami, FL 33181, USA
| | - Abraham Smith
- Ecotoxicology and Risk Assessment Laboratory, Southeast Environmental Research Center, Florida International University, North Miami, FL 33181, USA
| | - Juan Jose Pasantes
- Departamento de Bioquimica, Xenetica e Inmunoloxia, Universidade de Vigo, E-36310 Vigo, Spain
| | - Gary Rand
- Ecotoxicology and Risk Assessment Laboratory, Southeast Environmental Research Center, Florida International University, North Miami, FL 33181, USA
| | - Jose M Eirin-Lopez
- Environmental Epigenetics Group, Department of Biological Sciences, Florida International University, North Miami, FL 33181, USA.
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Kumar N, Liang D, Comellas A, Chu AD, Abrams T. Satellite-based PM concentrations and their application to COPD in Cleveland, OH. JOURNAL OF EXPOSURE SCIENCE & ENVIRONMENTAL EPIDEMIOLOGY 2013; 23:637-46. [PMID: 24045428 PMCID: PMC3980441 DOI: 10.1038/jes.2013.52] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/13/2012] [Revised: 07/11/2013] [Accepted: 07/12/2013] [Indexed: 05/23/2023]
Abstract
A hybrid approach is proposed to estimate exposure to fine particulate matter (PM(2.5)) at a given location and time. This approach builds on satellite-based aerosol optical depth (AOD), air pollution data from sparsely distributed Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) sites and local time-space Kriging, an optimal interpolation technique. Given the daily global coverage of AOD data, we can develop daily estimate of air quality at any given location and time. This can assure unprecedented spatial coverage, needed for air quality surveillance and management and epidemiological studies. In this paper, we developed an empirical relationship between the 2 km AOD and PM(2.5) data from EPA sites. Extrapolating this relationship to the study domain resulted in 2.3 million predictions of PM(2.5) between 2000 and 2009 in Cleveland Metropolitan Statistical Area (MSA). We have developed local time-space Kriging to compute exposure at a given location and time using the predicted PM(2.5). Daily estimates of PM(2.5) were developed for Cleveland MSA between 2000 and 2009 at 2.5 km spatial resolution; 1.7 million (∼79.8%) of 2.13 million predictions required for multiyear and geographic domain were robust. In the epidemiological application of the hybrid approach, admissions for an acute exacerbation of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (AECOPD) was examined with respect to time-space lagged PM(2.5) exposure. Our analysis suggests that the risk of AECOPD increases 2.3% with a unit increase in PM(2.5) exposure within 9 days and 0.05° (∼5 km) distance lags. In the aggregated analysis, the exposed groups (who experienced exposure to PM(2.5) >15.4 μg/m(3)) were 54% more likely to be admitted for AECOPD than the reference group. The hybrid approach offers greater spatiotemporal coverage and reliable characterization of ambient concentration than conventional in situ monitoring-based approaches. Thus, this approach can potentially reduce exposure misclassification errors in the conventional air pollution epidemiology studies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Naresh Kumar
- Department of Public Health Sciences, University of Miami, Miami, Florida, USA
| | - Dong Liang
- Department of Epidemiology, University of Iowa, Iowa City, Iowa, USA
| | - Alejandro Comellas
- Department of Pulmonary Medicine, University of Iowa, Iowa City, Iowa, USA
| | - Allen D. Chu
- Goddard Space Flight Center, NASA, Greenbelt, Maryland, USA
| | - Thad Abrams
- Iowa City VA Medical Center, Iowa City, Iowa, USA
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Abstract
Venoms and toxins are of significant interest due to their ability to cause a wide range of pathophysiological conditions that can potentially result in death. Despite their wide distribution among plants and animals, the biochemical pathways associated with these pathogenic agents remain largely unexplored. Impoverished and underdeveloped regions appear especially susceptible to increased incidence and severity due to poor socioeconomic conditions and lack of appropriate medical treatment infrastructure. To facilitate better management and treatment of envenomation victims, it is essential that the biochemical mechanisms of their action be elucidated. This review aims to characterize downstream envenomation mechanisms by addressing the major neuro-, cardio-, and hemotoxins as well as ion-channel toxins. Because of their use in folk and traditional medicine, the biochemistry behind venom therapy and possible implications on conventional medicine will also be addressed.
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Fleming LE, Kirkpatrick B, Backer LC, Walsh CJ, Nierenberg K, Clark J, Reich A, Hollenbeck J, Benson J, Cheng YS, Naar J, Pierce R, Bourdelais AJ, Abraham WM, Kirkpatrick G, Zaias J, Wanner A, Mendes E, Shalat S, Hoagland P, Stephan W, Bean J, Watkins S, Clarke T, Byrne M, Baden DG. Review of Florida Red Tide and Human Health Effects. HARMFUL ALGAE 2011; 10:224-233. [PMID: 21218152 PMCID: PMC3014608 DOI: 10.1016/j.hal.2010.08.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 111] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/05/2023]
Abstract
This paper reviews the literature describing research performed over the past decade on the known and possible exposures and human health effects associated with Florida red tides. These harmful algal blooms are caused by the dinoflagellate, Karenia brevis, and similar organisms, all of which produce a suite of natural toxins known as brevetoxins. Florida red tide research has benefited from a consistently funded, long term research program, that has allowed an interdisciplinary team of researchers to focus their attention on this specific environmental issue-one that is critically important to Gulf of Mexico and other coastal communities. This long-term interdisciplinary approach has allowed the team to engage the local community, identify measures to protect public health, take emerging technologies into the field, forge advances in natural products chemistry, and develop a valuable pharmaceutical product. The Review includes a brief discussion of the Florida red tide organisms and their toxins, and then focuses on the effects of these toxins on animals and humans, including how these effects predict what we might expect to see in exposed people.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lora E Fleming
- NSF NIEHS Oceans and Human Health Center, University of Miami, 4600 Rickenbacker Causeway, Miami, FL, 33149
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