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Allegro AR, Barhoumi R, Bordin AI, Bray JM, Cohen ND. Uptake and replication in Acanthamoeba castellanii of a virulent (pVAPA-positive) strain of Rhodococcus equi and its isogenic, plasmid-cured strain. Vet Microbiol 2021; 257:109069. [PMID: 33862330 DOI: 10.1016/j.vetmic.2021.109069] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/14/2020] [Accepted: 04/07/2021] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
Rhodococcus equi is a soil saprophytic bacterium and intracellular pathogen that causes pneumonia in foals. Strains of R. equi that are virulent in foals contain a plasmid that encodes a virulence-associated protein A (VapA) necessary for replication in macrophages. Because other intracellular pathogens survive and replicate inside amoebae, we postulated that the VapA-bearing plasmid (pVAPA) confers a survival advantage for R. equi against environmental predators like amoebae. To test this hypothesis, we compared phagocytosis by and survival in Acanthamoeba castellanii of isogenic strains of pVAPA-positive and pVAPA-negative R. equi. Phagocytosis of the pVAPA-negative strain by A. castellanii was significantly (P < 0.0001) greater than the pVAPA-positive strain. Intracellular replication of the pVAPA-positive strain in A. castellanii was significantly (P < 0.0001) greater than the pVAPA-negative strain during both 48 h and 9 days. These results indicate that the presence of the VapA plasmid reduces uptake and aids replication of R. equi in A. castellanii.
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Affiliation(s)
- Angelica R Allegro
- Equine Infectious Disease Laboratory, Department of Large Animal Clinical Sciences, College of Veterinary Medicine & Biomedical Sciences, Texas A&M University, College Station, TX, 77843-4475, United States
| | - Rola Barhoumi
- Image Analysis Laboratory, Department of Veterinary Integrative Biosciences, College of Veterinary Medicine & Biomedical Sciences, Texas A&M University, College Station, TX, 77843-4458, United States
| | - Angela I Bordin
- Equine Infectious Disease Laboratory, Department of Large Animal Clinical Sciences, College of Veterinary Medicine & Biomedical Sciences, Texas A&M University, College Station, TX, 77843-4475, United States
| | - Jocelyne M Bray
- Equine Infectious Disease Laboratory, Department of Large Animal Clinical Sciences, College of Veterinary Medicine & Biomedical Sciences, Texas A&M University, College Station, TX, 77843-4475, United States
| | - Noah D Cohen
- Equine Infectious Disease Laboratory, Department of Large Animal Clinical Sciences, College of Veterinary Medicine & Biomedical Sciences, Texas A&M University, College Station, TX, 77843-4475, United States.
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Ledbetter EC, McDonough SP, Dong L, Liotta JL, Bowman DD, Kim SG. Acanthamoeba sclerokeratitis in a cat. J Am Vet Med Assoc 2021; 257:1280-1287. [PMID: 33269959 DOI: 10.2460/javma.257.12.1280] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
CASE DESCRIPTION A 12-year-old neutered male domestic shorthair cat with chronic anterior uveitis and secondary glaucoma of the right eye was examined for persistent blepharospasm 2 weeks after corneal debridement and grid keratotomy for nonhealing superficial ulcerative keratitis. CLINICAL FINDINGS Examination of the right eye revealed a central superficial corneal ulcer associated with corneal epithelial and subepithelial infiltrates and mild aqueous flare. Structures consistent with amoeboid cysts and trophozoites were detected in the cornea by in vivo confocal microscopy. Suppurative keratitis was identified cytologically. An Acanthamoeba spp was isolated through culture and identified by a PCR assay of corneal specimens. TREATMENT AND OUTCOME Symptomatic and antiamoebic (polyhexamethylene biguanide 0.02% ophthalmic solution) treatments were instituted. Over the following 6 weeks, the cat lost vision in the affected eye and lesions progressed to nonulcerative stromal keratitis associated with a dense paracentral corneal stroma ring infiltrate and anterior lens luxation. The globe was enucleated, and lymphoplasmacytic sclerokeratitis, anterior uveitis, and retinal detachment were noted. Acanthamoeba organisms were detected within the corneal stroma and anterior sclera with histologic and immunohistochemical stains. The amoebae were classified to the Acanthamoeba T4 genotype by DNA sequencing. The cat had no medical problems attributed to Acanthamoeba infection over 36 months after enucleation, until the cat was lost to follow-up. CLINICAL RELEVANCE Naturally acquired Acanthamoeba sclerokeratitis is described in a cat for the first time. Acanthamoeba infection should be considered for cats with superficial corneal disease refractory to appropriate treatments and especially occurring after ocular trauma, including keratotomy.
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[Presence of Acanthamoeba spp. in watering trough in La Pampa province, Argentina]. Rev Argent Microbiol 2017; 49:227-234. [PMID: 28495034 DOI: 10.1016/j.ram.2016.12.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/30/2016] [Revised: 12/13/2016] [Accepted: 12/20/2016] [Indexed: 11/22/2022] Open
Abstract
Free-living Amoebae of Acanthamoeba genus include non-pathogenic and pathogenic strains that are currently classified in 18 different genotypes, T1-T18. In this study, a survey was carried out to evaluate the presence of Acanthamoeba strains inwatering trough sample in La Pampa province, Argentina. Sample were inoculated onto non-nutrient agar plates and were checked for the presence of Acanthamoeba. Polymerase chain reaction was performed with genus-specific primers JDP1/JDP2, followed by direct sequencing of the polymerase chain reaction product for molecular identification. Sequencing results revealed the presence of T4, T5 and T15 genotypes within the studied samples. Sequencing revealed presence of T4, T5 and T15 in the samples studied genotypes, the most frequent T4. Our study reveals importance of the presence of Acanthamoeba in the livestock environment and the need for further studies to associate the presence of these organisms and the role in veterinary pathology. To the best of our knowledge, this is the first report demonstrating the presence Acanthamoeba in La Pampa province and the first study at the genotype level in Argentina.
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In vivo CNS infection model of Acanthamoeba genotype T4: the early stages of infection lack presence of host inflammatory response and are a slow and contact-dependent process. Parasitol Res 2016; 116:725-733. [PMID: 27915418 DOI: 10.1007/s00436-016-5338-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/14/2016] [Accepted: 11/22/2016] [Indexed: 10/20/2022]
Abstract
This study was developed in order to describe the early morphological events observed during the invasion of two pathogenic strains of Acanthamoeba (genotype T4); A. castellanii and A. culbertsoni, at the olfactory meatus and cerebral, pulmonary, renal, hepatic and splenic tissues levels, an in vivo invasion study. Histological and immunohistochemical description of the events at 24, 48, 72, and 96 h postintranasal inoculations of BALB/c mice was performed. A. castellanii showed a higher invasion rate than A. culbertsoni, which was only able to reach lung and brain tissue in the in vivo model. The current study supports previous evidence of lack of inflammatory response during the early stages of infection. Acanthamoeba invasion of the CNS and other organs is a slow and contact-dependent process. The early morphological events during the invasion of amoebae include the penetration of trophozoites into different epithelia: olfactory, respiratory, alveolar space, and renal tubule, which resemble the process of amoebae invasion described in corneal tissue. The data suggest that after reaching the nasal epithelium, trophozoites continued invasion, separating and lifting the most superficial cells, then migrating and penetrating between the cell junctions without causing a cytolytic effect on adjacent cells. These results reaffirm the idea that contact-dependent mechanisms are relevant for amoebae of Acanthamoeba genus regardless of the invasion site.
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Karakuş M, Aykur M, Özbel Y, Töz S, Dağcı H. Molecular detection and genotyping of Acanthamoeba spp. among stray dogs using conjunctival swab sampling. Acta Trop 2016; 164:23-26. [PMID: 27545086 DOI: 10.1016/j.actatropica.2016.08.011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/26/2016] [Revised: 08/01/2016] [Accepted: 08/06/2016] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
Abstract
Acanthamoeba is one of the most common free-living amoebas (FLA) that present in environment. In humans, Acanthamoeba can cause an infection of the eye termed Acanthamoeba keratitis, which mostly occurs in contact lens wearers. In the present study, we aimed to screen the presence of Acanthamoeba DNA in stray dogs using previously collected conjunctival swab samples in a hyper-endemic area for canine leishmaniasis. Totally, 184 dogs were included in the study and 27 of them (14.6%) were found positive for Acanthamoeba according to the 18s rRNA gene sequencing. Two different genotypes (T4 and T5) were identified and T5 was firstly reported in Turkey in the present study. Statistical analysis was performed and no correlation was found between Leishmania and Acanthamoeba positivity (P<0.05). To best of our knowledge, this is the first study conducted to screen Acanthamoeba among stray dogs. Further studies are necessary to reveal the infection status and genotypes among dogs and its possible correlation with leishmaniasis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mehmet Karakuş
- Ege University, Faculty of Medicine, Department of Parasitology, İzmir, Turkey; Near East University, Faculty of Science and Letters, Molecular Biology and Genetic, Nicosia, Cyprus.
| | - Mehmet Aykur
- Ege University, Faculty of Medicine, Department of Parasitology, İzmir, Turkey
| | - Yusuf Özbel
- Ege University, Faculty of Medicine, Department of Parasitology, İzmir, Turkey
| | - Seray Töz
- Ege University, Faculty of Medicine, Department of Parasitology, İzmir, Turkey
| | - Hande Dağcı
- Ege University, Faculty of Medicine, Department of Parasitology, İzmir, Turkey
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6
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Ramírez-Rico G, Martínez-Castillo M, de la Garza M, Shibayama M, Serrano-Luna J. Acanthamoeba castellanii
Proteases are Capable of Degrading Iron-Binding Proteins as a Possible Mechanism of Pathogenicity. J Eukaryot Microbiol 2015; 62:614-22. [PMID: 25737266 DOI: 10.1111/jeu.12215] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/14/2014] [Revised: 12/09/2014] [Accepted: 01/19/2015] [Indexed: 02/05/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Gerardo Ramírez-Rico
- Departamento de Biología Celular; Centro de Investigación y de Estudios Avanzados del IPN; Av. Instituto Politécnico Nacional 2508 07360 México Distrito Federal México
| | - Moisés Martínez-Castillo
- Departamento de Infectómica y Patogénesis Molecular; Centro de Investigación y de Estudios Avanzados del IPN; Av. Instituto Politécnico Nacional 2508 07360 México Distrito Federal México
| | - Mireya de la Garza
- Departamento de Biología Celular; Centro de Investigación y de Estudios Avanzados del IPN; Av. Instituto Politécnico Nacional 2508 07360 México Distrito Federal México
| | - Mineko Shibayama
- Departamento de Infectómica y Patogénesis Molecular; Centro de Investigación y de Estudios Avanzados del IPN; Av. Instituto Politécnico Nacional 2508 07360 México Distrito Federal México
| | - Jesús Serrano-Luna
- Departamento de Biología Celular; Centro de Investigación y de Estudios Avanzados del IPN; Av. Instituto Politécnico Nacional 2508 07360 México Distrito Federal México
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Cabello-Vílchez AM, Rodríguez-Zaragoza S, Piñero J, Valladares B, Lorenzo-Morales J. Balamuthia mandrillaris in South America: an emerging potential hidden pathogen in Perú. Exp Parasitol 2014; 145 Suppl:S10-9. [PMID: 24858923 DOI: 10.1016/j.exppara.2014.05.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/31/2013] [Revised: 05/07/2014] [Accepted: 05/13/2014] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
Balamuthia mandrillaris is a free living amoeba that can be isolated from soil. It is an emerging pathogen causing skin lesions as well as CNS involvement with a fatal outcome if untreated. Further, infections can sometimes can also appear in peripheral areas such as extremities (usually knee), or trunk. Moreover, it often progresses to an infiltrative lesion that occasionally becomes ulcerated. In countries like Peru, a skin lesion will precede other symptoms. This primary cutaneous lesion can be present for weeks or even months. However, the appearance of neurological disease predicts a poor prognosis. Diagnosis requires a high level of suspicion.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alfonso M Cabello-Vílchez
- Laboratorio de Microbiología Clínica, Instituto de Medicina Tropical "Alexander Von Humboldt" Universidad Peruana Cayetano Heredia, Av. Honorio Delgado N°430, San Martín de Porras, Lima, Peru; University Institute of Tropical Diseases and Public Health of the Canary Islands, University of La Laguna, La Laguna, Tenerife, Canary Islands, Spain.
| | - Salvador Rodríguez-Zaragoza
- Laboratorio de Microbiología de la Unidad de Tecnología de Biología y Prototipos, Facultad de Estudios Superiores Iztacala, UNAM, Mexico City, Mexico
| | - José Piñero
- University Institute of Tropical Diseases and Public Health of the Canary Islands, University of La Laguna, La Laguna, Tenerife, Canary Islands, Spain
| | - Basilio Valladares
- University Institute of Tropical Diseases and Public Health of the Canary Islands, University of La Laguna, La Laguna, Tenerife, Canary Islands, Spain
| | - Jacob Lorenzo-Morales
- University Institute of Tropical Diseases and Public Health of the Canary Islands, University of La Laguna, La Laguna, Tenerife, Canary Islands, Spain
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Severe amoebic placentitis in a horse caused by an Acanthamoeba hatchetti isolate identified using next-generation sequencing. J Clin Microbiol 2014; 52:3101-4. [PMID: 24829227 DOI: 10.1128/jcm.01071-14] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
A case of amoebic placentitis in a mare from eastern Australia was diagnosed postpartum by histopathological examination of the placenta. The identity of the etiological agent was confirmed as Acanthamoeba hatchetti by use of diversity profiling based on a next-generation sequencing approach.
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9
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Characterization of isolates of Acanthamoeba from the nasal mucosa and cutaneous lesions of dogs. Curr Microbiol 2014; 68:702-7. [PMID: 24496873 DOI: 10.1007/s00284-014-0532-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/26/2013] [Accepted: 12/17/2013] [Indexed: 10/25/2022]
Abstract
Acanthamoeba spp. are free-living amoebae that are ubiquitously distributed in the environment and can cause encephalomyelitis in animals and humans. The factors that contribute to Acanthamoeba infections include parasite biology, genetic diversity, environmental spread, and host susceptibility. The aim of the present study was to characterize isolates of Acanthamoeba from the nasal mucosa and cutaneous lesions of dogs in order to access the occurence and pathogenicity of these organisms in this animal group. We studied 13 isolates of Acanthamoeba confirmed by polymerase chain reaction. They were sequenced, the genotype was determined, and their potential of pathogenicity was evaluated.
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10
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Lorenzo-Morales J, Cabello-Vílchez AM, Martín-Navarro CM, Martínez-Carretero E, Piñero JE, Valladares B. Is Balamuthia mandrillaris a public health concern worldwide? Trends Parasitol 2013; 29:483-8. [PMID: 23988231 DOI: 10.1016/j.pt.2013.07.009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 38] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/04/2013] [Revised: 07/25/2013] [Accepted: 07/26/2013] [Indexed: 10/26/2022]
Abstract
Balamuthia mandrillaris is an opportunistic, free-living amoeba that can cause skin lesions and the typically fatal Balamuthia amoebic encephalitis (BAE) both in immunocompromised and immunocompetent individuals. Available data for BAE cases indicate that this disease is difficult to detect because knowledge of predisposing factors is lacking, causing a challenge for diagnosing BAE. The number of reported BAE cases is increasing worldwide, and this is a major concern because little is known about the pathogen, no standardized detection tools are available, and most of the treatments are almost empirical. The recently reported cases, novel diagnostics tools, and successful therapeutic approaches against BAE infections are reviewed here.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jacob Lorenzo-Morales
- University Institute of Tropical Diseases and Public Health of The Canary Islands, University of La Laguna, Avenida Astrofísico Francisco Sánchez SN, 38203 La Laguna, Tenerife, Canary Islands, Spain.
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11
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Siddiqui R, Khan NA. Biology and pathogenesis of Acanthamoeba. Parasit Vectors 2012; 5:6. [PMID: 22229971 PMCID: PMC3284432 DOI: 10.1186/1756-3305-5-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 359] [Impact Index Per Article: 29.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/22/2011] [Accepted: 01/10/2012] [Indexed: 12/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Acanthamoeba is a free-living protist pathogen, capable of causing a blinding keratitis and fatal granulomatous encephalitis. The factors that contribute to Acanthamoeba infections include parasite biology, genetic diversity, environmental spread and host susceptibility, and are highlighted together with potential therapeutic and preventative measures. The use of Acanthamoeba in the study of cellular differentiation mechanisms, motility and phagocytosis, bacterial pathogenesis and evolutionary processes makes it an attractive model organism. There is a significant emphasis on Acanthamoeba as a Trojan horse of other microbes including viral, bacterial, protists and yeast pathogens.
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12
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Barratt JLN, Harkness J, Marriott D, Ellis JT, Stark D. Importance of nonenteric protozoan infections in immunocompromised people. Clin Microbiol Rev 2010; 23:795-836. [PMID: 20930074 PMCID: PMC2952979 DOI: 10.1128/cmr.00001-10] [Citation(s) in RCA: 67] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/31/2023] Open
Abstract
There are many neglected nonenteric protozoa able to cause serious morbidity and mortality in humans, particularly in the developing world. Diseases caused by certain protozoa are often more severe in the presence of HIV. While information regarding neglected tropical diseases caused by trypanosomatids and Plasmodium is abundant, these protozoa are often not a first consideration in Western countries where they are not endemic. As such, diagnostics may not be available in these regions. Due to global travel and immigration, this has become an increasing problem. Inversely, in certain parts of the world (particularly sub-Saharan Africa), the HIV problem is so severe that diseases like microsporidiosis and toxoplasmosis are common. In Western countries, due to the availability of highly active antiretroviral therapy (HAART), these diseases are infrequently encountered. While free-living amoebae are rarely encountered in a clinical setting, when infections do occur, they are often fatal. Rapid diagnosis and treatment are essential to the survival of patients infected with these organisms. This paper reviews information on the diagnosis and treatment of nonenteric protozoal diseases in immunocompromised people, with a focus on patients infected with HIV. The nonenteric microsporidia, some trypanosomatids, Toxoplasma spp., Neospora spp., some free-living amoebae, Plasmodium spp., and Babesia spp. are discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- J L N Barratt
- Department of Microbiology, St. Vincent's Hospital, Darlinghurst 2010, NSW, Australia.
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Reed LT, Miller MA, Visvesvara GS, Gardiner CH, Logan MA, Packer RA. DIAGNOSTIC EXERCISE. Vet Pathol 2010; 47:1116-9. [PMID: 20634413 DOI: 10.1177/0300985810374835] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/15/2022]
Abstract
A 5-month-old mongrel puppy with a history of respiratory disease presented with progressive neurologic dysfunction. Hematologic results included leukocytosis (neutrophilia with a left shift) and lymphopenia. A mass in the right forebrain, identified by magnetic resonance imaging, was biopsied during decompressive craniectomy. The histologic diagnosis was granulomatous meningoencephalitis with intralesional amoebae. The dog died within 24 hours of surgery. At necropsy, a well-demarcated granuloma was confined to the cerebrum, but granulomatous pneumonia was disseminated through all lobes of the lung. Concurrent infections included canine distemper, canine adenoviral bronchiolitis, and oral candidiasis. Canine distemper virus probably caused immunosuppression and increased susceptibility to secondary infections.
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Affiliation(s)
- L. T. Reed
- Animal Disease Diagnostic Laboratory, Purdue University, West Lafayette, Indiana
- Department of Comparative Pathobiology, Purdue University, West Lafayette, Indiana
| | - M. A. Miller
- Animal Disease Diagnostic Laboratory, Purdue University, West Lafayette, Indiana
- Department of Comparative Pathobiology, Purdue University, West Lafayette, Indiana
| | - G. S. Visvesvara
- Centers for Disease Control and Prevention: National Center for Zoonotic, Vector-Borne and Enteric Diseases, Atlanta, Georgia
| | - C. H. Gardiner
- Registry of Veterinary Pathology, Armed Forces Institute of Pathology, Washington, DC
| | - M. A. Logan
- Department of Veterinary Clinical Sciences, Purdue University, West Lafayette, Indiana
| | - R. A. Packer
- Department of Veterinary Clinical Sciences, Purdue University, West Lafayette, Indiana
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Niyyati M, Lorenzo-Morales J, Rezaie S, Rahimi F, Mohebali M, Maghsood AH, Motevalli-Haghi A, Martín-Navarro CM, Farnia S, Valladares B, Rezaeian M. Genotyping of Acanthamoeba isolates from clinical and environmental specimens in Iran. Exp Parasitol 2008; 121:242-5. [PMID: 19059239 DOI: 10.1016/j.exppara.2008.11.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 71] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/28/2008] [Revised: 11/11/2008] [Accepted: 11/17/2008] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
In this study, 15 Acanthamoeba isolates from AK patients and 10 environmental samples (water, soil and animal-origin samples) were classified at the genotype level based on the sequence analysis of the Diagnostic Fragment 3 (DF3) of Acanthamoeba small subunit rRNA gene. The obtained results revealed that most of these Acanthamoeba strains belonged to genotype T4 both in clinical and environmental samples. The presence T11 genotype in clinical samples was also revealed after the genotyping analysis and to our knowledge this is the first report of T11 genotype in Iran. Moreover, the isolation of T4 genotype from cow faeces in this study highlights a possible transmission of Acanthamoeba through animal faeces in Iran. Overall, the widespread distribution of pathogenic Acanthamoeba T4 across the environmental sources and the increasing number of contact lens wearers in Iran, demands more awareness within the public and health professionals as this pathogen is emerging as a risk for human health in Iran and worldwide.
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Affiliation(s)
- Maryam Niyyati
- Department of Parasitology and Mycology, School of Public Health, Tehran University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran
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