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Seltzer J, Hardin J, Galust H, Friedman N, Corbett B, Clark RF. Pharmacokinetic analysis of a phenobarbital overdose treated with urinary alkalinization alone. Toxicol Rep 2024; 12:574-577. [PMID: 38798988 PMCID: PMC11127027 DOI: 10.1016/j.toxrep.2024.05.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/26/2024] [Revised: 04/27/2024] [Accepted: 05/14/2024] [Indexed: 05/29/2024] Open
Abstract
Phenobarbital is a long-acting barbiturate used to treat alcohol withdrawal and epilepsy. Acute overdoses present with varying levels of central nervous system depression and large overdoses can be life threatening. Phenobarbital is an attractive candidate for enhanced elimination using urinary alkalinization given it is a weak acid with a long half-life and extensive urinary elimination. Limited human data exist regarding use of urine alkalinization for the treatment of phenobarbital overdose. We present a fourteen-year-old female who was treated with urinary alkalinization alone following an intentional ingestion of 3800 mg (84.4 mg/kg) of phenobarbital tablets. Urine drugs of abuse screening was preliminary positive for barbiturates and confirmed to be phenobarbital only. The initial serum phenobarbital concentration, drawn nine hours post-ingestion, was 97.4 mcg/ml (normal range 15-40 mcg/ml). Urinary alkalinization with sodium bicarbonate was started approximately 12 h post-ingestion and stopped at 72 h post-ingestion; clinical toxicity resolved by hospital day 5. The infusion was titrated to a urinary pH of greater than 7.5. Serial serum and urine phenobarbital measurements were obtained to determine elimination half-life and urinary excretion. The elimination half-life while undergoing urinary alkalinization was 81.3 h. Prior to initiation of urinary alkalinization, the urine phenobarbital concentration was 37 mcg/ml. Approximately 8.75 h after initiation, it was greater than 200 mcg/ml at a urine pH of 8.5. Urinary alkalinization appeared to augment urinary phenobarbital excretion, though with no discernible effect on elimination half-life and unclear clinical benefit. Further research is needed to better characterize the clinical effects of urinary alkalinization for phenobarbital overdose.
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Affiliation(s)
- Justin Seltzer
- Division of Medical Toxicology, Department of Emergency Medicine, UC San Diego Health, CA, USA
| | - Jeremy Hardin
- Division of Medical Toxicology, Department of Emergency Medicine, UC San Diego Health, CA, USA
- VA San Diego Healthcare System, San Diego, CA, USA
- San Diego Division, California Poison Control System, San Diego, CA, USA
| | - Henrik Galust
- Division of Medical Toxicology, Department of Emergency Medicine, UC San Diego Health, CA, USA
- VA San Diego Healthcare System, San Diego, CA, USA
- San Diego Division, California Poison Control System, San Diego, CA, USA
| | | | - Bryan Corbett
- Division of Medical Toxicology, Department of Emergency Medicine, UC San Diego Health, CA, USA
| | - Richard F. Clark
- Division of Medical Toxicology, Department of Emergency Medicine, UC San Diego Health, CA, USA
- San Diego Division, California Poison Control System, San Diego, CA, USA
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Stallworth S, Stilley K, Viriyakitja W, Powers S, Parish A, Erkanli A, Komisar J. Evaluation of phenobarbital dosing strategies for hospitalized patients with alcohol withdrawal syndrome. Gen Hosp Psychiatry 2023; 85:155-162. [PMID: 37926051 PMCID: PMC10755809 DOI: 10.1016/j.genhosppsych.2023.10.014] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/30/2023] [Revised: 10/12/2023] [Accepted: 10/20/2023] [Indexed: 11/07/2023]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE Alcohol remains the fourth‑leading preventable cause of death in the U.S. The objective of this study was to compare the incidence of phenobarbital (PHB)-resistant withdrawal and determine risk factors for PHB-resistant alcohol withdrawal syndrome (AWS). METHODS This retrospective cohort study included adults admitted to an academic center with AWS who received PHB as part of an institution-specific treatment protocol. The primary outcome was incidence of AWS resistant to initial protocolized PHB load across two cohorts (standard-dose, 10 mg/kg vs. low-dose, 6 mg/kg). RESULTS Among 176 included patients, there was no difference in the incidence of PHB-resistant AWS based on initial PHB load [low-dose load, 21 (18.3%) vs. standard-dose load, 12 (19.7%), p = 0.82]. There were also no differences in observed PHB-related ADEs between the groups. Total benzodiazepine dose received (mg) in the 24 h prior to initial PHB load was the only risk factor significantly associated with AWS resistant to initial protocolized PHB load [adjusted OR 1.79 (95% CI 1.24, 2.60)]. PHB-resistant withdrawal occurred in 33 (18.8%) patients with a median cumulative PHB dose of approximately 20 mg/kg during hospitalization. CONCLUSION(S) There were no differences in the incidence of PHB-resistant AWS or PHB-related ADEs based on initial PHB loading dose.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sara Stallworth
- University of Kentucky College of Pharmacy, 789 S Limestone, Lexington, KY 40508, United States of America.
| | - Kelsey Stilley
- Duke University Hospital, 2301 Erwin Road, Durham, NC 27710, United States of America
| | - Wassamon Viriyakitja
- Duke University Hospital, 2301 Erwin Road, Durham, NC 27710, United States of America
| | - Shelby Powers
- Duke University Hospital, 2301 Erwin Road, Durham, NC 27710, United States of America; Department of Psychiatry & Behavioral Sciences, Duke University School of Medicine, 40 Duke Medicine Circle 124 Davison Building, Durham, NC 27710, United States of America
| | - Alice Parish
- Department of Biostatistics & Bioinformatics, Duke University School of Medicine, 40 Duke Medicine Circle 124 Davison Building, Durham, NC 27710, United States of America
| | - Alaattin Erkanli
- Department of Biostatistics & Bioinformatics, Duke University School of Medicine, 40 Duke Medicine Circle 124 Davison Building, Durham, NC 27710, United States of America
| | - Jonathan Komisar
- Department of Psychiatry & Behavioral Sciences, Duke University School of Medicine, 40 Duke Medicine Circle 124 Davison Building, Durham, NC 27710, United States of America
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Terasaki D, Kulick B, Calcaterra S, Ray L. Phenobarbital for alcohol withdrawal in the context of the opioid epidemic: a neglected caveat. Addiction 2023; 118:1198-1200. [PMID: 36967706 PMCID: PMC10881280 DOI: 10.1111/add.16194] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/03/2023] [Accepted: 03/10/2023] [Indexed: 04/12/2023]
Abstract
Phenobarbital interacts with the mortality-reducing opioid agonist therapies buprenorphine and methadone, risking delayed opioid withdrawal and relapse when administered concurrently. With increased adoption of phenobarbital into alcohol withdrawal protocols there should be safeguards in place to—in most cases—avoid phenobarbital for patients with a concurrent opioid use disorder.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dale Terasaki
- Department of Behavioral Health, Denver Health and Hospital Authority, Denver, CO, USA
| | - Brian Kulick
- Addiction Medicine Fellowship, University of Colorado School of Medicine, Aurora, CO, USA
| | - Susan Calcaterra
- Division of Hospital Medicine, University of Colorado School of Medicine, Aurora, CO, USA
- Division of General Internal Medicine, University of Colorado School of Medicine, Aurora, CO, USA
| | - Lance Ray
- Department of Acute Care Pharmacy, Denver Health and Hospital Authority, Denver, CO, USA
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Nishimura Y, Choi H, Colgan B, Kistler H, Mercado F. Current evidence and clinical utility of phenobarbital for alcohol withdrawal syndrome. Eur J Intern Med 2023; 112:52-61. [PMID: 36935249 DOI: 10.1016/j.ejim.2023.03.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/03/2023] [Revised: 02/28/2023] [Accepted: 03/06/2023] [Indexed: 03/21/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Phenobarbital (PB) has been acknowledged among clinicians as a potential alternative to benzodiazepines (BZD) to decrease the need for hospital length of stay and complications associated with alcohol withdrawal syndrome (AWS). However, the level of evidence, including appropriate dosing, is unclear. We aim to summarize the evidence regarding PB used in AWS and provide future agendas for research. METHODS Following the PRISMA guidelines, we searched MEDLINE, EMBASE, ClinicalTrials.gov, and WHO ICTRP for all peer-reviewed articles and clinical trials using keywords including"alcohol withdrawal", "delirium tremens", "phenobarbital," and "barbiturate" from their inception to September 18, 2022. RESULTS We included 20 articles, nine in the emergency department (ED) and 11 in the general floors or intensive care units (ICUs). Studies performed in the ED included two RCTs, although both suffered from a considerably small sample size. Six studies done in the general floors or ICUs compared PB and BZD monotherapy, while four compared the utility of adjunct PB in addition to BZD compared with BZD monotherapy and one was a database study without specific dosing information. Overall, there was considerable heterogeneity in PB dosing, measured outcomes, and AWS severity measurement scales. CONCLUSION This systematic review summarizes the current evidence related to PB use in AWS. While considerable heterogeneity exists among studies available, PB as monotherapy without BZD may be a safe and effective alternative in AWS treatment. Future prospective studies or trials should focus on the standardization of PB dosing and outcomes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yoshito Nishimura
- Department of Medicine, John A. Burns School of Medicine, University of Hawai'i, Honolulu, HI, 96813, United States of America.
| | - Horyun Choi
- Department of Medicine, John A. Burns School of Medicine, University of Hawai'i, Honolulu, HI, 96813, United States of America
| | - Bridget Colgan
- Department of Medicine, Tripler Army Medical Center, Honolulu, HI 96859, United States of America
| | - Harrison Kistler
- Department of Medicine, Tripler Army Medical Center, Honolulu, HI 96859, United States of America
| | - Francisco Mercado
- Department of Medicine, John A. Burns School of Medicine, University of Hawai'i, Honolulu, HI, 96813, United States of America; Department of Medicine, Tripler Army Medical Center, Honolulu, HI 96859, United States of America
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Strayer RJ, Friedman BW, Haroz R, Ketcham E, Klein L, LaPietra AM, Motov S, Repanshek Z, Taylor S, Weiner SG, Nelson LS. Emergency Department Management of Patients With Alcohol Intoxication, Alcohol Withdrawal, and Alcohol Use Disorder: A White Paper Prepared for the American Academy of Emergency Medicine. J Emerg Med 2023; 64:517-540. [PMID: 36997435 DOI: 10.1016/j.jemermed.2023.01.010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/28/2022] [Accepted: 01/06/2023] [Indexed: 03/30/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Reuben J Strayer
- Department of Emergency Medicine, Maimonides Medical Center, Brooklyn, New York.
| | - Benjamin W Friedman
- Department of Emergency Medicine, Montefiore, Albert Einstein College of Medicine, Bronx, New York
| | - Rachel Haroz
- Cooper Medical School of Rowan University, Cooper University Healthcare, Camden, New Jersey
| | - Eric Ketcham
- Department of Emergency Medicine, Department of Behavioral Health, Addiction Medicine, Presbyterian Healthcare System, Santa Fe & Española, New Mexico
| | - Lauren Klein
- Department of Emergency Medicine, Good Samaritan Hospital, West Islip, New York
| | - Alexis M LaPietra
- Department of Emergency Medicine, Saint Joseph's Regional Medical Center, Paterson, New Jersey
| | - Sergey Motov
- Department of Emergency Medicine, Maimonides Medical Center, Brooklyn, New York
| | - Zachary Repanshek
- Department of Emergency Medicine, Lewis Katz School of Medicine, Temple University, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania
| | - Scott Taylor
- Department of Emergency Medicine, Royal Melbourne Hospital, Melbourne, Australia
| | - Scott G Weiner
- Department of Emergency Medicine, Brigham and Women's Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts
| | - Lewis S Nelson
- Department of Emergency Medicine, Rutgers New Jersey Medical School, Newark, New Jersey
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Al-Maqbali JS, Al Alawi AM, Al-Mamari Q, Al-Huraizi A, Al-Maqrashi N. Symptoms-triggered approach versus fixed-scheduled approach of benzodiazepines for management of alcohol withdrawal syndrome: Non-randomized controlled trial. Alcohol 2023; 106:10-14. [PMID: 36240945 DOI: 10.1016/j.alcohol.2022.09.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/08/2022] [Revised: 09/29/2022] [Accepted: 09/29/2022] [Indexed: 01/25/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Alcohol withdrawal syndrome, if untreated, can lead to potentially life-threatening complications. Benzodiazepines are the drugs of choice for the treatment of alcohol withdrawal syndrome. We aimed to compare the symptoms-triggered approach and fixed-dose approach of benzodiazepine administration for treatment of alcohol withdrawal syndrome in regard to the health care utilization measured by the total dose of benzodiazepines, length of hospital stays, and 90-day readmissions rate. METHODS A single-center prospective non-randomized controlled trial included all patients diagnosed with alcohol withdrawal syndrome. The group of patients admitted between October 1, 2019, and September 30, 2020, were treated with the fixed-scheduled approach (n = 150), while all patients admitted between November 1, 2020, to October 31, 2021, were treated with the symptoms-trigger approach (n = 50). RESULTS The fixed-dose approach group showed a significant higher 90-day readmissions rate (HR: 2.61; 95% CI = 1.18, 6.84; p = 0.01). Kaplan-Meier survival analysis showed a significantly shorter duration to the first readmission in the fixed-scheduled approach group (HR: 2.3; 95% CI = 5.6, 1.16; p = 0.02). The symptoms-triggered approach group required a significantly lower dose of diazepam (40 mg vs. 10 mg; p < 0.01) and a higher dose of thiamine (800 mg vs. 600 mg; p < 0.01). Length of hospital stay was significantly increased in the symptoms-triggered approach group (3.9 vs. 2.2 days; p < 0.01). DISCUSSION The use of a symptoms-triggered approach to treat alcohol withdrawal syndrome was associated with a lower 90-day readmission rate, prolonged period to the first readmission, and reduced total dose of benzodiazepines, but longer length of hospital stays. CONCLUSION The symptoms-triggered approach is safe, cost-effective, and associated with reduced alcohol dependence relapse.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Abdullah M Al Alawi
- Department of Medicine, Sultan Qaboos University Hospital, Muscat, Oman; Internal Medicine Training Program, Oman Medical Specialty Board, Muscat, Oman.
| | - Qasim Al-Mamari
- Department of Nursing, Sultan Qaboos University Hospital, Muscat, Oman
| | - Aisha Al-Huraizi
- Department of Medicine, Sultan Qaboos University Hospital, Muscat, Oman
| | - Nasiba Al-Maqrashi
- Internal Medicine Training Program, Oman Medical Specialty Board, Muscat, Oman
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Muacevic A, Adler JR, Muhammad S, Yousaf S, Nassar M, Ilyas U, Hosna AU, Parikh A, Bhangal R, Ahmed N, Ariyaratnam J, Trandafirescu T. Phenobarbital and Alcohol Withdrawal Syndrome: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis. Cureus 2023; 15:e33695. [PMID: 36788902 PMCID: PMC9922035 DOI: 10.7759/cureus.33695] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 01/12/2023] [Indexed: 01/13/2023] Open
Abstract
Alcohol withdrawal syndrome (AWS) is a complication frequently encountered among patients who are chronic alcohol abusers. It is considered to have a significant impact on the United States healthcare system. It not only has a toll on the healthcare spending but also contributes to significant morbidity and mortality. Benzodiazepines are considered first line in the treatment of AWS. Since patients with alcohol use disorder have downregulated gamma aminobutyric acid (GABA) receptors, this often leads to benzodiazepine resistance. Phenobarbital is also used in the management of alcohol withdrawal syndrome. Here we present a systematic review and meta-analysis of the efficacy and safety of the drug. We conducted an electronic database search for relevant studies published between the inception of the project and November 20, 2022, in three databases, including Medline/PubMed, Embase, and Cochrane Library. Our study included all original studies with prime focus on the baseline characteristics of patients admitted to the intensive care unit (ICU) for alcohol withdrawal syndrome and management/monitoring protocol implemented for its treatment. The primary outcomes that were the focus of our study consisted of changes in the length of hospital stay, length of ICU stay, and changes in scoring systems (for alcohol withdrawal assessment and monitoring) following the implementation of phenobarbital. The secondary outcomes included complications such as intubation and mortality. Based on our analysis, the mean difference in hospital stay was statistically significant at -2.6 (95% CI, -4.48, -0.72, P=0.007) for phenobarbital compared to the benzodiazepine group. We were unable to comment on the heterogeneity in our meta-analysis due to the standard deviation not being reported in one study. There was no statistically significant difference regarding the length of stay in the intensive care unit compared to the control/comparative arm, with a mean difference of -1.17 (95% CI, -1.17, 0.09, P=0.07), with considerable heterogeneity (I2=77%, P=0.002). Our meta-analysis also investigated the risk of intubation between the phenobarbital and the control/comparative group. There was statistically significant difference in the incidence of intubation, relative risk (RR) 0.52 (95% CI, 0.25, 1.08, P=0.08), with considerable heterogeneity (I2=80%, P=0.0001). Our study concludes that phenobarbital is an effective tool in the management of AWS in an ICU setting. However, various studies have reported contradictory results, and vital information appears to be lacking. Moreover, there is a lack of uniformity in terms of phenobarbital dosing. Drug administration should be adapted according to the severity of the symptoms. Further studies need to be conducted discussing the safety profile and adverse effects of the drug when it comes to the management of alcohol withdrawal syndrome.
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Alwardi R, Rondinella T, Quinn A. Future Considerations in Response to "Adjunctive Phenobarbital for Alcohol Withdrawal Syndrome: A Focused Literature Review". J Pharm Technol 2021; 37:320-321. [PMID: 34790971 DOI: 10.1177/87551225211042957] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Affiliation(s)
- Rose Alwardi
- Northwestern Medicine Palos Hospital, Palos Heights, IL, USA
| | - Tony Rondinella
- Northwestern Medicine Palos Hospital, Palos Heights, IL, USA
| | - Andrea Quinn
- Northwestern Medicine Palos Hospital, Palos Heights, IL, USA
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