Construct validity of the Relationship Profile Test: links with attachment, identity, relatedness, and affect

Intrapersonal dynamics of closeness versus distance: Qualities of the self-concept distinguish destructive overdependence, dysfunctional detachment, and healthy dependency

INTRODUCTION

People vary in the degree to which they affiliate with others; exaggerated efforts maintain interpersonal closeness versus distance are codified in longstanding categorical models of personality pathology, and in contemporary dimensional frameworks as well.

OBJECTIVE

To examine associations between destructive overdependence (DO), dysfuntional detachment (DD), and healthy dependency (HD) and qualities of the self-concept.

METHOD

A mixed-sex sample of 229 adults completed the Relationship Profile Test to assess DO, DD, and HD, and the Object Relations Inventory (ORI) to assess qualities of the self-concept.

RESULTS AND CONCLUSION

Analyses indicated that (1) the ORI Strong dimension was uniquely predictive of DO (inversely related); (2) ORI Warm and Nurturing were unique predictors of DD (both inversely related); and (3) ORI Nurturing and Successful were unique predictors of HD. This study illuminates key intrapersonal features of these three personality styles.

Dependency, Detachment, and Health-Related Behavior in Adult Primary Care Patients

This investigation examined links between three related personality styles as assessed with the Relationship Profile Test-destructive overdependence, dysfunctional detachment, and healthy dependency-and indices of health and health-related behavior in a mixed-sex (74% female) sample of 100 primary care patients with a mean age of 38.62 (SD = 12.99). Fourteen primary care physicians also participated. As hypothesized, destructive overdependence and dysfunctional detachment scores were positively correlated with number of contacts with the emergency department; healthy dependency scores were inversely related to emergency department contacts and number of overnight hospitalizations. Healthy dependency scores were associated with an array of positive health behaviors; destructive overdependence scores were negatively associated with positive health behaviors. In addition, healthy dependency scores were inversely related to physician ratings of a difficult doctor-patient relationship. These results demonstrate that destructive overdependence, dysfunctional detachment and healthy dependency scores are associated in expected ways with indices of health and health-related behavior, and help illuminate the underlying factors that contribute to comparatively poor health and variations in health service use among overdependent and detached medical patients.

The smartphone as a "significant other": interpersonal dependency and attachment in maladaptive smartphone and social networks use

Smartphones are increasingly widespread throughout the world and, although smartphones provide various benefits, excessive and maladaptive use is often reported. Given the penetration of smartphones in the individual's daily life, it is relevant to identify the mechanisms sustaining their use, including the affective bond that the owner may develop with the device. The aim of the current study is to test a novel model to explain smartphone and Social Network Sites (SNS) use from an interpersonal perspective. We hypothesized that adult attachment style and interpersonal patterns (i.e., features of interpersonal dependency) generalize to the emotional bond with the mobile device, interacting with psychological correlates and background factors to predict smartphone and SNS consumption. 341 nonclinical adults (57.2% females; age M = 35.5, SD = 14.6) completed a battery consisting of the Attachment Style Questionnaire, the Relationship Profile Test, the Rosenberg Self-Esteem Scale, the Toronto Alexithymia Scale, the Young Adult Attachment to Phone Scale, and the Social Network Intensity and Social Network Access via Mobile phone Applications. A multi-mediation model supported the hypothesis regarding the influence of interpersonal style in the relationship of the individual with their smartphone and use of SNS. A parallel between attachment style and the emotional bond with the smartphone emerged, with anxious attachment style and destructive overdependence being potential risk factors for maladaptive smartphone use especially in individuals involved in a romantic relationship. Findings are discussed in terms of theoretical implications and intervention strategies towards smartphone dependency.

Intergenerational Trauma, Dependency, and Detachment

ABSTRACT

The literature on intergenerational transmission of trauma is predominantly focused on the mental health functioning of children and grandchildren of trauma survivors. Research shows that having a traumatized parent is related to increased psychopathology and dysfunctional attachment patterns in the next generation, but little is known about the effects of parental trauma on other aspects of interpersonal relating. The current study addresses this gap. Participants were young adult students from an urban college; individual and parental trauma histories, and indices of unhealthy dependency, dysfunctional detachment, and healthy dependency, were obtained. Results indicated that a wide range of parental traumas were positively correlated with dysfunctional detachment, but not related to destructive overdependence or healthy dependency. These results suggest that a wide range of parental traumas have a negative impact on the next generation's interpersonal dependency by fostering a tendency to distance themselves from close relationships.

Assessing the Impact of Relationship Profile Test Scores, Self-Identified Ethnic Group, and Gender on Adult Attachment Style

Research shows that the subscales of the Relationship Profile Test (RPT) are related to adult attachment. Gender differences have been implicated, but findings are inconsistent in terms of replication. A limited amount of research has been conducted on ethnic differences in the context of interpersonal dependency. This study aims to bridge the gap in the literature in terms of using the RPT to predict attachment styles and to assess gender and ethnic group differences in RPT scores. Four samples from various treatment settings were combined to yield a heterogeneous group of ethnically diverse men and women (N = 470) with a mean age of 31.96. No gender differences were observed; however, ethnic differences were noted, with the RPT scales predicting unique variance in secure and insecure attachment styles. This study evidences the incremental validity of the RPT scales when predicting adult attachment style with consideration of ethnic group differences, which can help inform the treatment and assessment process.

Socioeconomic Status Association With Dependency From Objective and Subjective Assessments: A Cross-Sectional Study

BACKGROUND

The effect of socioeconomic status (SES) on dependency is still complex and not fully clear. The purposes of this study are to assess the association between SES and dependency personality disorder (DPD) using both objective and subjective assessments.

METHODS

A cross-sectional study was conducted in 27 locations in China among 1,276 general residents aged 60 years and above through a complex multistage sampling design. Data were collected using a questionnaire by well-trained investigators through face-to-face interviews. The DPD was assessed using a standardized Chinese version of the Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory-II scale. Objective SES was assessed by the combination of education levels, individual income, preretirement occupation, and medical insurance. Subjective SES was measured using the MacArthur Scale. The logistic regression analysis was used to evaluate the association between objective SES and DPD. Analysis of covariance was conducted to compare the mean of DPD scores in different levels of SES.

RESULTS

The results of the chi-squared test showed that the levels of objective SES were associated with DPD, depression, social resources, and region. The logistic regression analysis showed a significant negative association between the levels of objective SES and DPD. The odds ratio was 1.84 (95% confidence interval, 1.07-3.18) after adjusting for important confounding factors. The analysis of covariance showed differences in the mean of DPD scores among different groups defined by different levels of SES.

CONCLUSION

The levels of SES were negatively associated with DPD, and subjective SES had a stronger association with DPD than objective SES. The effect of subjective SES on DPD is possibly associated with the perception of position in the social hierarchy.

A Multimethod Investigation of Sex, Romantic Relationships, and Interpersonal Dependency

An individual's level of interpersonal dependency influences the way they engage with others, and researchers have achieved a comprehensive understanding of the interplay between dependency and interpersonal relationships across an array of social situations. This knowledge has improved the efficacy of medical and psychotherapeutic work with dependent clients and has informed approaches taken to reduce the societal costs of dependent personality disorder (e.g., increased risk for suicide and self-harm, perpetration of child abuse, perpetration of domestic violence, victimization by a partner, and physical illness). Relatively little research, however, has explored dependency's links to sexual activity and sexual functioning, the findings of which stand to offer knowledge valuable to sex counseling, couples therapy, sexual health, and our overall understanding of sexuality. The current study utilized a multimethod research design to explore dependency as it relates to sexual and romantic relationships and sexual activity. Multiple associations emerged between dependency, both interpersonal dependency and a healthy variant of dependency, and sexual activity. Based upon these findings and contemporary literature, an initial discussion of some of the therapeutic implications of this knowledge and suggestions for working with dependent clients are offered.

Italian Version of the Relationship Profile Test (RPT-I): Temporal Stability, Construct Validity, and Cross-Cultural Comparison

This study presents the adaptation to the Italian context of the Relationship Profile Test (RPT; Bornstein & Languirand), a self-report measure of Destructive Overdependence (DO), Dysfunctional Detachment (DD), and Healthy Dependency (HD). The RPT was administered to a community sample of 661 nonclinical Italian adults together with the Attachment Style Questionnaire, the Relational-Interdependent Self-Construal Scale, the Rosenberg Self-Esteem Scale, the Self-Compassion Scale, the Positive Affect-Negative Affect Scale, and the Toronto Alexithymia Scale. A randomly selected subset of participants (n = 67) completed the RPT again approximately 5 months after the first administration. The factor structure of the RPT obtained in the main sample was compared with that obtained in a sample of 603 adult participants from the US and was found to be similar. Internal consistency for DO, DD, and HD scores in the Italian sample fell between the acceptable to good range, and test-retest reliability coefficients were all above .70. The three scales yielded the expected pattern of correlations with theoretically related constructs, documenting good criterion validity. Findings are discussed in light of the literature on the RPT as a measure of interpersonal dependency and detachment. Suggestions for future research are offered.

When the "Golden Years" Turn Blue: Using the Healthy Aging Literature to Elucidate Anxious and Depressive Disorders in Older Adulthood

Current treatments for disorders of emotion, like pathological anxiety, are often less effective in older adults than in younger adults and have poorly understood mechanisms, pointing to the need for psychopathology models that better account for age-related changes in normative emotional functioning and the expression of disordered emotion. This article describes ways in which the healthy aging and emotion literature can enhance understanding and treatment of symptoms of anxiety and depression in later life. We offer recommendations for how to integrate the healthy aging literatures' theories and findings with psychopathology research and clinical practice, and highlight opportunities for future research.

The implications of sex role identity and psychological capital for organisations: A South African study

Orientation: A large body of research evidence indicates that both sex role identity (SRI) and psychological capital (PsyCap) may have critical implications for individual and organisational well-being. As SRI is constituted of sex-based personality traits it is possible that SRI may have implications for individuals’ PsyCap.Research purpose: The purpose of this study was to investigate the relationship between SRI and the positive psychological construct of PsyCap.Motivation for the study: Research on SRI and PsyCap has been explored independently of one another with a lack of research exploring the relationship between these two constructs. In addition, much of the previous research on SRI and organisational outcomes has only examined positive sex role identities, focusing almost exclusively on ‘positive’ or ‘socially desirable’ sex role identities. More recently, researchers have noted that this approach is theoretically and methodologically flawed, as it fails to account for negative traits or socially undesirable traits that may be contained within individuals’ SRI and which may have a number of deleterious implications for organisational outcome variables. Furthermore, there is a paucity of research within the South African context, which explores the adoption of positive and negative sexbased behavioural traits and their implications for PsyCap.Research design, approach and method: A quantitative study was conducted using a crosssectional design and a convenience sampling method to explore the relationship between SRI and PsyCap. Four hundred and seventy-eight respondents, all currently working in South African organisations, participated in this research. The composite questionnaire utilised for this research included a demographic questionnaire, The Extended Personal Attribute Questionnaire-Revised (EPAQ-R), and the PCQ-24 which measures PsyCap in terms of self-efficacy, hope, resilience and optimism.Main findings: Statistically significant differences were found between the positive and negative SRIs for levels of PsyCap. In particular, positive androgyny and positive masculinity scored the highest levels of PsyCap, whereas negative androgyny and negative femininity consistently scored the lowest levels. Although positive femininity fared significantly better than the aforementioned negative identities in most instances, this identity scored significantly lower levels on the positive PsyCap outcomes of hope and resilience, than the other positive identities of positive androgyny and positive masculinity. Furthermore, and counterintuitively, within this South African study, negative masculinity fared unexpectedly better on all dimensions of PsyCap, as compared to the poorer outcomes for negative masculinity evidenced in other international research.Practical/managerial implications: Given the pervasive impact of SRIs and PsyCap on interpersonal and organisational functioning, this research has practical and managerial implications for organisations with regard to recruitment, selection, training and development, and workplace counselling interventions.Contribution/value-add: The findings of this research contribute to the paucity of literature investigating both positive and negative SRIs and contribute further by exploring the interrelationship between these identities and PsyCap. As this study utilised a sample of individuals working in South Africa, its findings have a direct bearing on South African organisations.

Interpersonal dependency and online gaming addiction

Background and aims The present study explores the relationship between social motivations and addiction to online gaming and if that possible connection can be explained by the personality traits responsible for social functioning. Methods We employ Bernstein's concept of interpersonal dependency to distinguish healthy dependency, dysfunctional detachment, and destructive overdependence, and Charlton and Danforth's conceptualisation of online gaming addiction and high engagement. An online questionnaire was administered to a self-nominated sample of 4,074 online gamers. Two regression models were constructed to separately explain gaming addiction and high engagement using social motivations to play, while controlling for age, gender, and time spent online. Results High scores on subscales measuring dysfunctional detachment and destructive overdependence were positively associated with online gaming addiction, while healthy dependency was negatively correlated with addiction scores. In contrast, the overall role of social motivation was negligible. Discussion People with healthy relationship profiles are less likely to develop problematic patterns of online gaming. High in-game engagement, although sharing some factors with addiction, was only poorly explained by the study variables, suggesting the mutual exclusiveness of addiction and engagement.

Correlates of interpersonal dependency and detachment in an adolescent inpatient sample

Interpersonal dependency has been linked to psychological distress, depression, help seeking, treatment compliance, and sensitivity to interpersonal cues in adult samples. However, there is a dearth of research focusing on dependency in child and adolescent samples. The current study examined the construct validity of a measure of interpersonal dependency. The authors investigated how interpersonal dependency and detachment relate to behavioral problems, subjective well-being, interpersonal problems, and global symptom severity in adolescent inpatients. Destructive overdependence (DO) and dysfunctional detachment (DD) were positively related to interpersonal distress, behavioral problems, and symptom severity and negatively related to psychological health and well-being. Healthy dependency (HD) was associated with fewer behavioral problems and less symptom severity and positively related to subjective well-being. The clinical implications of these findings are discussed.

Construct Validity of the Relationship Profile Test: Links With Measures of Psychopathology and Adult Attachment

This study assessed the construct validity of the Relationship Profile Test (RPT; Bornstein & Languirand, 2003 ) with a substance abuse sample. One hundred-eight substance abuse patients completed the RPT, Experiences in Close Relationships Scale-Short Form (Wei, Russell, Mallinckrodt, & Vogel, 2007 ), Personality Assessment Inventory (Morey, 1991 ), and Symptom Checklist-90-Revised (Derogatis, 1983 ). Results suggest that the RPT has good construct validity when compared against theoretically related broadband measures of personality, psychopathology, and adult attachment. Overall, health dependency was negatively related to measures of psychopathology and insecure attachment, and overdependence was positively related to measures of psychopathology and attachment anxiety. Many of the predictions regarding RPT detachment and the criterion measures were not supported. Implications of these findings are discussed.

The complex role of personality in cancer treatment: impact of dependency-detachment on health status, distress, and physician-patient relationship

Personality traits have been associated with positive and negative adjustment to a cancer diagnosis. No studies have assessed trait dependency and detachment and their relationship to health, distress, and the doctor-patient relationship in patients undergoing radiation treatment for cancer. Fifty adults (32 women; mean [SD], 60.32 [12.74] years) undergoing radiation treatment for a variety of cancers completed measures of dependency and detachment, doctor-patient relationship, physical health, somatization, anxiety, and depression. Overdependence scores were positively and significantly correlated with patients' anxiety and negatively and significantly correlated with the physician-patient relationship. Detachment scores were positively and significantly correlated with pain, somatization, depression, and anxiety and marginally associated with lower health-related quality of life. These preliminary findings support the construct validity and clinical utility of trait dependency and detachment testing with oncology patients and suggest that detachment is associated with poorer quality of life and higher psychological distress, whereas dependency is associated with poorer doctor-patient relationships after a cancer diagnosis.

Disambiguating Dependency and Attachment Among Conjugally Bereaved Adults

This study aims to investigate the effects of dependency and attachment in adjusting to the loss of a loved one by directly comparing the relative contribution of each to bereavement outcomes among midlife adults. Comparisons among attachment and dependency are made using models that control for attachment among three groups of bereaved adults (N=102): prolonged grievers (n=25), resolved grievers (n=41), and a married comparison group (n=36). Prolonged grievers displayed higher marginal means of dysfunctional detachment dependency and lower marginal means of healthy dependency compared to resolved grievers and married adults, even when controlling for attachment style. Findings suggest that attachment and dependency predict unique domains of grief outcome.

Extending the construct validity of dependency among conjugally bereaved adults

The Relationship Profile Test is a widely used measure of dependency, detachment, and healthy dependency that has been examined in both clinical and nonclinical settings, though researchers have yet to validate this measure among conjugally bereaved adults. The present study examines the construct validity of a three-facet model of dependency-detachment by comparing relationships among self-report, semistructured interview-rated, and knowledgeable informant-rated functioning among conjugally bereaved adults. Participants (N = 112) included bereaved adults (M = 51.1 years; SD = 9.7) who had experienced the loss of a spouse 1.5 to 3 years prior to taking part in this study. Findings indicate adequate psychometric properties and theoretically expected associations with various measures of wellness and health including satisfaction with life, coping flexibility, somatic complaints, and ego resiliency. Results draw attention to adaptive correlates of dependency, suggesting potentially beneficial mental health interventions.

From Dysfunction to Adaptation: An Interactionist Model of Dependency

Contrary to clinical lore, a dependent personality style is associated with active as well as passive behavior and may be adaptive in certain contexts (e.g., in fostering compliance with medical and psychotherapeutic treatment regimens). The cognitive/interactionist model conceptualizes dependency-related responding in terms of four components: (a) motivational (a marked need for guidance, support, and approval from others); (b) cognitive (a perception of oneself as powerless and ineffectual); (c) affective (a tendency to become anxious when required to function autonomously); and (d) behavioral (use of diverse self-presentation strategies to strengthen ties to potential caregivers). Clinicians' understanding of the etiology and dynamics of dependency has improved substantially in recent years; current challenges include delineating useful subtypes of dependency, developing valid symptom criteria for Dependent Personality Disorder in DSM-5 and beyond, and working effectively with dependent patients in the age of managed care.

Adaptive and Maladaptive Dependency in Bereavement: Distinguishing Prolonged and Resolved Grief Trajectories

Interpersonal dependency is typically viewed as a risk factor for prolonged grief among conjugally bereaved adults. However, emerging empirical evidence and theoretical advances suggest that one manifestation of interpersonal dependency--adaptive dependency--may serve as a protective factor in coping with loss. This study compared adaptive and maladaptive dependency across three matched groups: prolonged grievers, asymptomatically bereaved adults, and a married comparison group. Results suggest a link between adaptive dependency and asymptomatic bereavement, and between maladaptive dependency and prolonged grief.

Physical health correlates of pathological and healthy dependency in urban women

This study assessed the relationship between dependency and indicators of health/illness, healthcare costs, and utilization. Dependency ratings were obtained using the Relationship Profile Test (Bornstein and Languirand, 2003), a questionnaire that assesses healthy and pathological dependency: destructive overdependence (DO), dysfunctional detachment (DD), and healthy dependency (HD). The sample consisted of primarily low-income, African-American, and female primary care patients (N = 110). DO and DD were significantly associated with indices of increased illness, with DO evidencing slightly larger effect sizes than DD. HD was significantly (negatively) associated with 1 health/illness variable. DD and DO were associated with higher total outpatient costs with DD also being associated with average costs per visit. DO and HD were associated with utilization (increased hospital days and fewer emergency room visits, respectively). Further research is recommended to inform researchers and clinicians about the dependency-illness relationship and to develop interventions that maximize HD and minimize pathological dependency.

Expanding the Construct Validity of the Relationship Profile Test: Associations With Physical Health and Anaclitic and Introjective Traits

The authors examined the construct validity of the Relationship Profile Test (RPT) with respect to measures of two related constructs—physical health and well-being (functional health status), and depression-linked personality type (anaclitic vs. introjective). In Study 1, the authors administered the RPT, Depressive Experiences Questionnaire (DEQ), and Medical Outcomes Study Short Form (MOS SF-20) to 116 undergraduate students. In Study 2, the RPT, DEQ, and MOS SF-20 were administered to 110, mostly African American female, primary care outpatients. Destructive Overdependence was positively correlated with anaclitic and introjective trait scores in both samples. Dysfunctional Detachment was positively correlated with introjective scores in both samples and with anaclitic scores in the primary care sample. Healthy Dependency was negatively correlated with introjective scores in both samples and with anaclitic scores in the primary care sample. These studies support the construct validity of the RPT in ethnically diverse nonclinical and clinical samples, and extend previous findings documenting links between RPT subscale scores and scores on measures of other theoretically related constructs.

The adaptive and maladaptive faces of dependency in later life: links to physical and psychological health outcomes

OBJECTIVES

Negotiating the balance between reliance on others and desires for autonomy is a fundamental task of successful aging. The purpose of the present study was to replicate and extend a three-factor model of interpersonal dependency in a sample of older adults, and to examine the physical and psychological health correlates of this multifaceted construct.

METHODS

Data come from the third wave of a population-based study of older Americans (n = 166; mean age 80 years). We conducted an exploratory factor analysis of selected dependency items from two scales, and then conducted logistic and hierarchical linear regressions to analyze the association of dependency factors with self-reported health, use of hypertension medication, depressed affect and positive affect.

RESULTS

We found three factors closely paralleling those of Bornstein and Languirand's (Psychological Bulletin, 112(1), 3-23, 2004) measure: destructive overdependence, healthy dependency and dysfunctional detachment, as well as a fourth factor we labeled 'healthy independence'. Healthy dependency was associated with better self-reported health. Dysfunctional detachment was related to a greater likelihood and healthy independence a lesser likelihood of taking hypertension medication. Whereas both healthy independence and healthy dependency were positively related to positive affect and negatively related to depressed affect, destructive overdependence was positively related to depressed affect.

CONCLUSION

Understanding the complex nature of interpersonal dependency and autonomy in old age, as well as their implications for health and wellbeing, may enable practitioners to assist older adults in negotiating the task of balancing these needs.

Construct validity of the relationship profile test: three-year retest reliability and links with core personality traits, object relations, and interpersonal problems

The Relationship Profile Test (RPT; Bornstein & Languirand, 2003) is a 30-item self-report measure of destructive overdependence, dysfunctional detachment, and healthy dependency. Previous research has shown that the 3 RPT subscales have adequate internal consistency, good retest reliability over 23 and 85 weeks, and good convergent and discriminant validity with respect to measures of attachment style, relatedness, gender role, self-concept, alexithymia, locus of control, need for approval, and life satisfaction. In this investigation, we assessed the 3-year retest reliability of RPT scores in a northeastern liberal arts college student sample (Study 1) and evaluated the convergent and discriminant validity of RPT scores in a southern university sample (Study 2). Results generally supported the long-term stability and convergent and discriminant validity of RPT scores but also pointed to some limitations of the measure. We discuss implications of these results and describe future research directions.

Construct Validity of the Relationship Profile Test: Impact of Gender, Gender Role, and Gender Role Stereotype

Research supports the construct validity of the Relationship Profile Test (RPT; Bornstein & Languirand, 2003), a 30-item, self-report measure of destructive overdependence (DO), dysfunctional detachment (DD), and healthy dependency. In this investigation, we assessed the relationships of gender, gender role, and gender role stereotype ratings to RPT subscale scores. In Study 1, we replicated earlier patterns of gender differences in RPT scores, assessed cross-sample consistency in gender difference effect sizes, and provided preliminary nonclinical norms for the RPT subscales. Study 2 showed that--as expected--DO items are perceived as stereotypically feminine, whereas DD items are perceived as stereotypically masculine. In Study 3, we examined the relationships of RPT subscale scores to masculinity, femininity, and androgyny scores. We discuss the theoretical, empirical, and clinical implications of these findings.