Rape: too hard to report and too easy to discredit victims

Yes, It's that Common and Yes, It's that Bad: An Estimation of the Prevalence and Psychological Correlates of Rape and Sexual Assault in College Women

Rape myths play a role in rape denialism, in which individuals deny the prevalence and severity of sexual assault. This project aimed to address two common rape myths: that rape is uncommon and its effects are exaggerated. To test these claims, we explored two archival samples consisting of undergraduate women. Study 1, a 5-year chart review of university counseling center intake forms (n = 883), demonstrated that 30.2% of clients had experienced "sexual violence," "sexual contact without consent," or both. Study 2, a re-analysis of an emerging adulthood resilience survey dataset (n = 359), demonstrated that 20.6% of subjects had a history of sexual assault, and that those women reported lower life satisfaction and more severe psychological symptoms than those who did not. These findings are in line with previous literature debunking harmful rape myths that contribute to the perpetuation of rape culture. Our data help validate these rape notions as mythical; rape is indeed common and devastating.

"I Didn't Realize How Common it Was:" A Mixed-Methods Study Examining Changes in Perceptions of Sexual Assault, Sex and Consent, and Sexual Behavior as a Function of the #Metoo Movement

This mixed-methods study examined awareness and perceived legitimacy of the #MeToo movement and how #MeToo changed perceptions of sexual assault and consent, as well as sexual interactions, in the United States. Adults residing in the U.S. were recruited through CloudResearch to complete an online survey in 2021. Quantitative data from 680 participants (M age = 45.8, 60% women, 77.4% White) indicated moderate awareness and perceived legitimacy of the #MeToo movement; Black, LGBQ+, and more politically liberal respondents had greater #MeToo awareness while younger, more liberal respondents, and those with greater rejection of rape myths rated #MeToo more legitimate. Among 354 participants (M age = 45.0, 65.3% women, 76.4% White) who answered at least one open-ended question with regard to changes resulting from the #MeToo movement, thematic analysis revealed nine primary themes: (1) Describing change; (2) Change in understanding; (3) More cautious; (4) Wrong or requires reporting/punishment; (5) Gendered social norms; (6) Easier to talk about; (7) #MeToo rhetoric; (8) Consequences for survivors, and (9) Empowerment. Several sub-themes were identified among the primary themes and implications for sexual assault prevention and response were discussed. The study findings are contextualized by social constructionism, with a particular focus on gender-based power dynamics, contributing to a growing literature documenting the cultural impact of the #MeToo movement.

Legal Decision-Making in an Adult Rape Case Involving DNA Evidence

This study investigated how jurors use deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) evidence in an adult rape trial with a female victim and a male stranger defendant. Community members read a trial summary and then made case judgments (e.g., verdict). Results showed: (a) DNA evidence led to more pro-victim judgments (e.g., more guilty verdicts) than those who did not receive DNA evidence; (b) women were more pro-victim than men; (c) pro-victim judgments indirectly affected the presence of DNA evidence and verdict; and (d) the reason for a guilty verdict when DNA evidence was present typically noted a focus on the victim and DNA evidence.

#MeToo and Sexual Violence Reporting in the National Crime Victimization Survey

The Me Too Movement has reshaped cultural awareness about sexual violence but little is known about how this shift may have coincided with changes in the reporting of sexual violence. The current study is the first to use the National Crime Victimization Survey to compare pre-#MeToo and post-#MeToo reports of sexual violence across three different blocks of time (Time 1: 2014-2015; Time 2: October 2017-September 2019; Time 3: October 2019-September 2021). Comparisons include prevalence rates of overall sexual violence, self-reports of sexual violence, official police reports of sexual violence, and situational characteristics of sexual violence (offender was a stranger, victim injury, victim services used). We also examine gender (women/men) and racial (White women/non-White women) differences in sexual violence reporting. Using formal comparisons, we find a significant increase in the rates of overall sexual violence as well as self-reports and stranger-offender reports of sexual violence between the pre- (Time 1) and the first post-#MeToo time point (Time 2). However, these increases are no longer evident in Time 3. In addition, the changes between the pre- (Time 1) and the first post-#MeToo time point (Time 2) are driven primarily by White women's reporting of sexual violence, and we find no significant changes in the rates of sexual violence experienced by men nor non-White women during these time periods.

The Association between the Percentage of Female Law Enforcement Officers and Rape Report, Clearance, and Arrest Rates: A Spatiotemporal Analysis of California

Rape is an underreported violent crime that frequently remains uncleared (open) in the legal system. Rape disproportionately affects women, with 91% of rape victim-survivors estimated to be female. However, law enforcement agencies, the entry point into the criminal justice system, are predominantly comprised of male officers. According to the theory of representative bureaucracy, groups with greater representation in a bureaucratic system are more likely to have their interests protected. This study aims to determine if California law enforcement agencies with a higher percentage of female officers are more likely to have higher rates of rape reporting, clearances, and arrests. No previous study has examined this relationship using statewide data. Crimes and Clearances, Monthly Arrest and Citation Register, and Uniform Crime Reporting data for California (2013-2016) were aggregated into 499 Law Enforcement Reporting Areas (LERA). Bayesian space-time Poisson regressions controlling for LERA demographics and crime produced scaled relative rates for three outcomes: (a) rape report rate: number of reports relative to population ages 18+; (b) rape clearance rate: number of clearances relative to reports; and (c) rape arrest rate: number of arrests for rape relative to reports. A 5% increase in the percentage of female officers within an agency was associated with a 6.2% increase in the rape report rate (ARR: 1.062, 95% credible interval (CI) [1.048, 1.077]), a 2.9% decrease in the clearance rate (ARR: 0.971 95% CI [0.950, 0.993]), and no change in the rape arrest rates (ARR: 1.010; 95% CI [0.981, 1.039]) across all LERA. Thus, increased female officer representation was associated with an increase in rape reporting rates but associated with a decrease in rape clearance rates. The theory of representative bureaucracy was only partially supported, and these relationships may not be causal. The quantity of rape reports received by an agency, employment and promotion practices of agencies, and victim-survivor's attitudes toward officer's gender should also be considered.

Police Decisions in a Rape Scenario: The Effect of Trauma Response, Forensic Evidence, Stranger-Perpetrators, and Rape Mythology

This study examined the direct effect of "classic rape" characteristics, and how they were moderated by rape myth endorsement, on the likelihood of arrest, perceived district attorney charge acceptance, and perceived suspect conviction using a formal rape disclosure among a sample of 468 police participants from a sizeable municipal law enforcement agency in one of the fifth largest and most diverse U.S. cities. A randomly assigned, between-subjects factorial vignette design was employed. Manipulations included stereotypical trauma response, forensic medical exam, and perpetrator type. Path modeling revealed statistically significant relations between stereotypical trauma response, forensic medical exam, perpetrator type, and the three outcome variables. Rape myth endorsement moderated the effect of manipulations on the dependent variables. Implications for research and policy are discussed.

Moral Foundations, Himpathy, and Punishment Following Organizational Sexual Misconduct Allegations

We build on deontic justice and moral foundations theories to shed light on responses to sexual misconduct at work by proposing a model that explains why some third parties punish accusing victims and support alleged perpetrators. We theorize that when third parties are given conflicting he-said, she-said information, they intuitively evaluate organizational injustice based on moral values. We further theorize that binding moral foundations (loyalty, authority, purity) give rise to sympathy toward men accused of sexual misconduct and anger toward female accusers. Across five studies (total n = 5,413) utilizing archival, field, and vignette designs, we examined third-party responses to sexual misconduct accusations ranging in severity across several industries. Third-party endorsement of binding moral foundations was linked to increased perpetrator-directed sympathy and victim-directed anger (Studies 1–4). These emotions jointly mediated the relationship between binding values and credibility perceptions of the accusing victim and the alleged perpetrator (Studies 2 and 3). Moreover, victim credibility was negatively associated with social sanctions and punishment severity levied toward the accusing victim, and perpetrator credibility was negatively associated with the same punishment outcomes for the alleged perpetrator (Studies 3 and 4). In Study 5, we found that managers framing the accusing victim as disloyal exacerbated negative judgments and emotions toward the victim and positive judgments and emotions toward the perpetrator for individuals who highly ascribe to binding moral foundations. We discuss the theoretical contributions and practical implications of moral concerns on third parties’ emotions, judgments, and motivations to punish actors involved in sexual misconduct allegations.

Supplemental Material: The e-companion is available at https://doi.org/10.1287/orsc.2022.1652 .

Explaining the Why in #WhyIDidntReport: An Examination of Common Barriers to Formal Disclosure of Sexual Assault in College Students

Within the current study, we examined themes of college students' reasons for choosing not to formally disclose (report) sexual assault. To complete this objective, we examined tweets (n = 1,297) that used the WhyIDidntReport hashtag in which a user also made reference (within the same thread) to being enrolled at a college or university during the time (and aftermath) of the assault. We deemed Twitter a particularly valuable platform, offering insight into the hidden figure of crime, as users described events, feelings, and perceptions after the event that led to them not formally disclosing. Further, it provides a large sample of cases of women and men who recognize their assault as an assault (at least in hindsight), while also providing open-ended, unstructured explanations of their rationales and motivations. Using an inductive approach, we established broad themes that were then refocused into common barriers of formal disclosure or the continuation of formal disclosure. Subthemes included anticipated social reactions (stemming from vicarious and direct experiences), internalized emotions, often stemming from social reactions (normalization, shame, and blame), victim and offender status, and victim-offender relationship. Three overarching premises were developed from the analysis including (a) victims' internalizations of experiences and observations, (b) the interaction of social factors of the victim, offender, and the victim-offender relationship, and (c) the continual and compounded decision-making process of formal disclosure. These conclusions were then examined within theoretical models, including Black's Behavior of Law Theory (specifically morphology and stratification), Overstreet and Quinn's intimate partner violence stigmatization model, and Chaudoir and Fisher's disclosure process model. Lastly, we provide programmatic recommendations, which includes retailoring current bystander intervention curricula to include more focus on social reactions and social support in anticipation of college students being recipients of sexual assault disclosures by friends and acquaintances.

Unfounding the Ideal Victim: Does Christie's Ideal Victim Explain Police Response to Intimate Partner Sexual Assault?

Nils Christie's (1986) ideal victim is said to receive "complete and legitimate status as a victim." Many victims of intimate partner sexual assault (IPSA), are not given this status, resulting in their cases being unfounded. The current study evaluates 16 years of reported IPSA cases (n = 1,558) in a large municipal police department in the midwestern United States. Through multivariate logistic regression this study evaluates which factors lead a reported IPSA case to be unfounded. Further, it examines how the IPSA victim fits into the concept of the ideal victim. The results indicate that several variables representing the ideal victim criteria are influence in unfounding IPSA cases; however, many are the opposite of what might be expected based on Christie's work. Results further indicate that race (victim race, detective race, racial composition of district) has a substantial impact on IPSA cases being unfounded.

"It Made Me so Vulnerable": Victim-blaming and Disbelief of Child Sexual Abuse as Triggers of Social Exclusion Leading Women to Homelessness

Although the association between child sexual abuse (CSA) and homelessness among women is well documented, few studies have investigated this topic from a feminist standpoint, examining the impact of sociocultural factors such as rape culture. Based on a qualitative life course approach, individual interviews were conducted with 21 women who experienced both CSA and homelessness. Participants were between 29 to 60 years old (M = 45 years of age). Analyses revealed that CSA disclosure experiences were characterized by victim-blaming and disbelief. Women's traumatic experiences were further aggravated by these types of reactions. Finally, CSA and negative social reactions to women's disclosures of CSA were perceived as the onset of social exclusion, which lead to their homelessness. This study shows how traumatic CSA experiences and negative social reactions to their disclosure can both contribute to social exclusion and isolation, and to homelessness through the internalization of rape myths. These findings support the importance of focusing on CSA prevention to reduce social exclusion and homelessness.

Trauma, social media, and #WhyIDidntReport: An analysis of twitter posts about reluctance to report sexual assault

Recent social trends regarding sexual violence and gender have included elements of "hashtag activism," which involves using social media tools for cultural awareness and change. For example, the Twitter hashtag: #WhyIDidntReport was created for survivors of sexual victimization to share their barriers to reporting. In this project, 600 tweets attached to this hashtag were analyzed using a combination of grounded theory and content analysis methods. Results were organized into a conceptual map, with a central category (power), connected to three other ecological categories (culture, community systems, and relationships) and one category of survivor experiences. Each category has subcategories which illustrate certain contextual and internal barriers to reporting assault. The model shows how these barriers intersect and interact, and often further traumatize those who have been assaulted. The model offers implications for professionals working with those who have survived sexual trauma, as well as those studying the dynamics of abuse.

Undoing the 'Nordic Paradox': Factors affecting rates of disclosed violence against women across the EU

Measuring violence against women raises methodological questions, as well as the wider question of how to understand violence and locate it in relation to a societal context. This is all the more relevant given that measurement of violence against women in the EU has made an interesting phenomenon apparent, the so-called 'Nordic Paradox', whereby prevalence is higher in more gender equal countries. This article examines this phenomenon by exploring a range of factors-methodological, demographic and societal-to contextualise disclosed levels of violence. The analysis makes use of a multilevel analytic approach to take into account how macro and micro levels contribute to the prevalence of violence. The intercepts are then used to illustrate how taking these into account might provide an alternative ranking of levels of violence against women in EU countries. The results show that the 'Nordic Paradox' disappears-and can be undone-when factors at individual and country levels are considered. We conclude that the 'Nordic Paradox' cannot be understood independently from a wider pattern of violence in society, and should be seen as connected and co-constituted in specific formations, domains or regimes of violence. Our results show that the use of multi-level models can provide new insights into the factors that may be related to disclosed prevalence of violence against women. This can generate a better understanding of how violence against women functions as a system, and in turn inform better policy responses.

Conceived Through Rape/Incest? Adoptive Parents' Experiences Managing Uncertainty and Disclosure Surrounding their Children's Origins

Adoptive parents may be placed with children conceived under difficult circumstances, such as via rape or incest. At the same time, adoptive parents are generally encouraged to communicate openly with their children about their adoption stories and birth families. No research has examined the experiences of parents who adopt children who were conceived through rape or incest. This exploratory study examines how parents discuss their decision-making when adopting children conceived via rape or incest, how they manage varying levels of uncertainty about their children's origins, and whether and how they plan to disclose this information to children. The researchers used thematic analysis to examine the experiences of 11 couples (22 parents) interviewed at four time points after adopting children who were reportedly conceived via rape or incest. Findings revealed that even soon after adopting, parents discussed the need to eventually talk to their children about their conception circumstances. Parents generally struggled to determine how and when to disclose this information, particularly when they felt uncertain about the veracity of the conception stories they had been told. Some hoped to rely on professionals or birth mothers to guide them in these communications. Findings have implications for supporting adoptive families as they navigate the complexity of managing sensitive information and uncertainty when adopting children conceived through rape or incest. Practitioners should provide ongoing guidance to adoptive parents about how and when to disclose developmentally appropriate information to children about difficult conception circumstances.

A Schema of Denial: The Influence of Rape Myth Acceptance on Beliefs, Attitudes, and Processing of Affirmative Consent Campaign Messages

This study aims to examine the influence of rape myth acceptance (RMA) and the perceived salience of sexual violence on the cognitive processing of an affirmative consent campaign active on the campus where research was conducted. As part of a midcourse evaluation of the Consent is Sexy (CIS) campaign (N = 285), a subsample of participants who reported prior exposure to campaign posters (N = 182) was asked to review four campaign posters and indicate the extent to which they processed the message in the posters systematically. Robust gender differences in perceived salience of sexual violence, supportive attitudes, and perceived behavioral control (PBC) toward establishing consent were mediated by RMA. Moreover, robust gender differences in the systematic processing of the campaign were mediated by RMA and perceived salience in serial. Implications of the influence of rape myths and perceived salience on the cognitive processing of affirmed consent campaigns are discussed with respect to both campaign message design and implementation.

The Morality of Men Convicted of Domestic Violence: How It Supports the Maintenance of the Moral Self-Concept

The phenomenon of abuse toward women is a prevalent social problem in most societies. In the present work, we take into consideration the abusive man's point of view with particular reference to the sphere of their morality and set as aims: (a) to show that high levels of self-deception are mediating between an extreme moral worldview, called moral absolutism, and a functional high moral self-concept, (b) to analyze the relation of the five moral foundations (Harm, Fairness, Ingroup, Authority, and Purity) with this moral absolutism, and (c) to test a comprehensive model of the relationships between the individuated variables in the preceding hypotheses. Participants are 264 men convicted of domestic violence offenses, who, having begun court-mandated psychological treatment lasting 12 weeks, have filled out a self-report questionnaire during the second meeting. The results reveal that (a) self-deception is as a full mediator between moral absolutism and moral self-concept in men convicted of domestic violence and in such a way that the more they felt right about their moral beliefs, the more they deceived themselves, and the more they felt good about themselves, (b) the moral foundations could be explaining moral absolutism understood as a rigid moral vision of the world, and (c) the tested model produces satisfying fit indices. Finally, we discuss the applied implications, for example, a key role can be played by the family and the school: Moral socialization begins within the family and there finds the first push that will accompany it the rest of life.

It’s Her Fault

The present study examined factors that are associated with an individual’s adherence to rape myths at two colleges located in the same town. Particularly, we examined sex, race, and participants’ drinking behavior in relation to rape myth acceptance. We found that males and heavy drinkers are more likely than females and non/low drinkers to adhere to rape myths. An interaction between males and drinking was also found indicating a moderated effect of gender on rape myth acceptance. In addition, the college with sexual assault programming did not experience a lowered acceptance of rape myths compared with the college with no programming.

Tip of the iceberg: reporting and gender-based violence in developing countries

Gender-based violence (GBV) is widespread globally and has myriad adverse health effects but is vastly underreported. Few studies address the extent of reporting bias in existing estimates. We provide bounds for underestimation of reporting of GBV to formal and informal sources conditional on having experienced GBV and characterize differences between women who report and those who do not. We analyzed Demographic and Health Survey data from 284,281 women in 24 countries collected between 2004 and 2011. We performed descriptive analysis and multivariate logistic regressions examining characteristics associated with reporting to formal sources. Forty percent of women experiencing GBV previously disclosed to someone; however, only 7% reported to a formal source (regional variation, 2% in India and East Asia to 14% in Latin America and the Caribbean). Formerly married and never married status, urban residence, and increasing age were characteristics associated with increased likelihood of formal reporting. Our results imply that estimates of GBV prevalence based on health systems data or on police reports may underestimate the total prevalence of GBV, ranging from 11- to 128-fold, depending on the region and type of reporting. In addition, women who report GBV differ from those who do not, with implications for program targeting and design of interventions.

Exploring Rape Myths, Gendered Norms, Group Processing, and the Social Context of Rape Among College Women

The purpose of this research is to explore the negotiation strategies of college women as they interpret ambiguous rape scenarios. In focus groups, 1st- and 4th-year college women were presented with a series of three vignettes depicting incidents that meet the legal criteria for rape yet are ambiguous due to the presence of cultural rape myths, contexts involving alcohol consumption, varying degrees of consent, and a known perpetrator. These contexts are critical in understanding how college women define rape. Key findings indicated many of these college women utilized rape myths and norms within their peer groups to interpret rape scenarios.

Violência sexual: estudo descritivo sobre as vítimas e o atendimento em um serviço universitário de referência no Estado de São Paulo, Brasil

A violência sexual é problema de saúde pública global e ações têm sido implementadas para estimular estudos no tema, a fim de propor intervenções de prevenção e atendimento adequado. Este trabalho objetivou caracterizar a população de mulheres que sofreram violência sexual, e descrever as características da agressão e do atendimento dispensado em um serviço universitário de referência. Estudo quantitativo e retrospectivo com atendimentos por violência sexual de junho de 2006 a dezembro de 2010. Avaliadas 687 mulheres, a maioria branca, solteira, sem filhos, com idade média de 23,7 anos, escolaridade entre fundamental e média, empregadas, com religião e prática religiosa. Um quarto sem relação sexual anterior. Violência sexual principalmente à noite, na rua, por agressor desconhecido e único, via vaginal e com intimidação. A maioria contou para outras pessoas e se sentiu apoiada. Atendimento precoce para quase 90% das mulheres, instaurando medidas profiláticas. Ocorreu aumento da procura precoce ao longo do período. Conhecer melhor as características da população e do evento pode auxiliar a estruturação e qualificação de modelos de atendimento.

Social disorganization and unfounded sexual assault case clearances

Despite much research and policy development, it remains true that less than one half of all reported sexual assaults are cleared by arrest (Federal Bureau of Investigation [FBI], 2011). Compounding this issue, many sexual assaults are not cleared by an arrest, but rather by being classified as "unfounded" by law enforcement (Soulliere, 1994, 2005; Tellis & Spohn, 2008). Grounded in the social disorganization perspective, this article examines the relationships between case-related and extralegal community-level characteristics and use of the designation of unfounded by the police. Contrary to initial expectations, findings show that communities with higher levels of concentrated disadvantage, immigrant concentration, and residential instability are less likely to have sexual assaults deemed unfounded by law enforcement.