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Rankovic A, Godfrey H, Grant CE, Shoveller AK, Bakovic M, Kirby G, Verbrugghe A. Serum metabolomic analysis of the dose-response effect of dietary choline in overweight male cats fed at maintenance energy requirements. PLoS One 2023; 18:e0280734. [PMID: 36689425 PMCID: PMC9870128 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0280734] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/04/2022] [Accepted: 01/06/2023] [Indexed: 01/24/2023] Open
Abstract
Choline participates in methyl group metabolism and has been recognized for its roles in lipid metabolism, hepatic health and muscle function in various species. Data regarding the impacts of choline on feline metabolic pathways are scarce. The present study investigated how choline intake affects the metabolomic profile of overweight cats fed at maintenance energy. Overweight (n = 14; body condition score:6-8/9) male adult cats were supplemented with five doses of choline in a 5x5 Latin Square design. Cats received a daily dose of choline on extruded food (3620 mg choline/kg diet) for three weeks at maintenance energy requirements (130 kcal/kgBW0.4). Doses were based on body weight (BW) and the daily recommended allowance (RA) for choline for adult cats (63 mg/kg BW0.67). Treatment groups included: Control (no additional choline, 1.2 x NRC RA, 77 mg/kg BW0.67), 2 x NRC RA (126 mg/kg BW0.67), 4 x NRC RA (252 mg/kg BW0.67), 6 x RA (378 mg/kg BW0.67), and 8 x NRC RA (504 mg/kg BW0.67). Serum was collected after an overnight fast at the end of each treatment period and analyzed for metabolomic parameters through nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) spectroscopy and direct infusion mass spectrometry (DI-MS). Data were analyzed using GLIMMIX, with group and period as random effects, and dose as the fixed effect. Choline up to 8 x NRC RA was well-tolerated. Choline at 6 and 8 x NRC RA resulted in greater concentrations of amino acids and one-carbon metabolites (P < 0.05) betaine, dimethylglycine and methionine. Choline at 6 x NRC RA also resulted in greater phosphatidylcholine and sphingomyelin concentrations (P < 0.05). Supplemental dietary choline may be beneficial for maintaining hepatic health in overweight cats, as it may increase hepatic fat mobilization and methyl donor status. Choline may also improve lean muscle mass in cats. More research is needed to quantify how choline impacts body composition.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alexandra Rankovic
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, Ontario Veterinary College, University of Guelph, Guelph, Ontario, Canada
| | - Hannah Godfrey
- Department of Clinical Studies, Ontario Veterinary College, University of Guelph, Guelph, Ontario, Canada
| | - Caitlin E. Grant
- Department of Clinical Studies, Ontario Veterinary College, University of Guelph, Guelph, Ontario, Canada
| | - Anna K. Shoveller
- Department of Animal Biosciences, University of Guelph, Guelph, Ontario, Canada
| | - Marica Bakovic
- Department of Human Health and Nutritional Sciences, University of Guelph, Guelph, Ontario, Canada
| | - Gordon Kirby
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, Ontario Veterinary College, University of Guelph, Guelph, Ontario, Canada
| | - Adronie Verbrugghe
- Department of Clinical Studies, Ontario Veterinary College, University of Guelph, Guelph, Ontario, Canada
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Witzel-Rollins A, Murphy M, Springer CM, Moyers TD, Albright JD. Evaluation of a pet-separating automatic feeder and high-frequency meal feeding for weight loss in multi-cat households. J Feline Med Surg 2022; 24:e281-e288. [PMID: 35762268 PMCID: PMC10812286 DOI: 10.1177/1098612x221105046] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
OBJECTIVES The objectives of this study were two-fold: (1) to determine if a feeder system providing individualized food access and automatic dispensing of meals makes weight-loss programs in multi-cat homes easier for cat owners; and (2) to assess if feeding six meals daily reduces food-seeking behavior and increases calorie requirements vs two meals per day. METHODS Adult cats with body condition scores (BCSs) of 7/9 or greater underwent a weight-loss plan for up to 6 months using a traditional feeding bowl with two meals per day (B2) or an automatic feeder with two meals (A2) or six meals (A6) per day. Cats were weighed at weeks 0, 2, 4, 6, 10, 14, 18, 22 and 26 and food intake was adjusted to maintain weight-loss rates between 0.5% and 1.5% body weight per week. Owner questionnaires were completed at each study visit. RESULTS Twenty-three cats were included in the study. Cats fed from the automatic feeders were more likely to reach ideal body condition (P = 0.006), with 83.2% of cats in A6, 40% of cats in A2 and no cats in B2 achieving a BCS of ⩽6/9. Owners of cats fed from automatic feeders reported the weight-loss plan was easier vs owners of cats fed from bowls (P = 0.01). Owners using the automatic feeders also reported fewer incidences of certain food-seeking behaviors. Neither percent body weight lost per week nor calorie intake per kg differed between groups. CONCLUSIONS AND RELEVANCE Feeding six instead of two meals daily did not result in faster rates of weight loss or the need to increase calorie intake to maintain appropriate rates of weight loss. However, use of an automatic feeder that provided separated, portioned meal feeding made the weight-loss program easier, reduced food-seeking behaviors and improved the overall success of the weight-loss plan.
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Affiliation(s)
- Angela Witzel-Rollins
- Department of Small Animal Clinical Sciences, The University of Tennessee College of Veterinary Medicine, Knoxville, TN, USA
| | - Maryanne Murphy
- Department of Small Animal Clinical Sciences, The University of Tennessee College of Veterinary Medicine, Knoxville, TN, USA
| | | | - Tamberlyn D Moyers
- Department of Small Animal Clinical Sciences, The University of Tennessee College of Veterinary Medicine, Knoxville, TN, USA
| | - Julia D Albright
- Department of Small Animal Clinical Sciences, The University of Tennessee College of Veterinary Medicine, Knoxville, TN, USA
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Rankovic A, Godfrey H, Grant CE, Shoveller AK, Bakovic M, Kirby G, Verbrugghe A. Dose-response relationship between dietary choline and serum lipid profile, energy expenditure, and respiratory quotient in overweight adult cats fed at maintenance energy requirements. J Anim Sci 2022; 100:skac202. [PMID: 35641141 PMCID: PMC9259596 DOI: 10.1093/jas/skac202] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/23/2022] [Accepted: 05/26/2022] [Indexed: 11/14/2022] Open
Abstract
Choline is an essential nutrient linked to hepatic lipid metabolism in many animal species, including cats. The current study investigated the serum lipid profiles, serum liver enzymes, respiratory quotients, and energy expenditures of overweight cats fed maintenance diets, in response to graded doses of supplemental dietary choline. Overweight (body condition score [BCS]: ≥6/9) adult male neutered cats (n = 14) were supplemented with five choline chloride doses for 3-wk periods, in a 5 × 5 Latin square design. Doses were based on individual body weight (BW) and the daily recommended allowance (RA) for choline (63 mg/kg BW0.67) according to the National Research Council. Doses were control (no additional choline: 1.2 × RA, 77 mg/kg BW0.67), 2 × RA (126 mg/kg BW0.67), 4 × RA (252 mg/kg BW0.67), 6 × RA (378 mg/kg BW0.67), and 8 × RA (504 mg/kg BW0.67). Choline was top-dressed over the commercial extruded cat food (3,620 mg choline/kg diet), fed once a day at maintenance energy requirements (130 kcal/kgBW0.4). Body weight and BCS were assessed weekly. Fasted blood samples were taken and indirect calorimetry was performed at the end of each 3-wk period. Serum was analyzed for cholesterol, high-density lipoprotein cholesterol (HDL-C), triglycerides, non-esterified fatty acids, glucose, creatinine, blood urea nitrogen (BUN), alkaline phosphatase (ALP), and alanine aminotransferase. Very low-density lipoprotein cholesterol (VLDL) and low-density lipoprotein cholesterol were calculated. Data were analyzed via SAS using proc GLIMMIX, with group and period as the random effects, and treatment as the fixed effect. Statistical significance was considered at P < 0.05. Body weight and BCS did not change (P > 0.05). Serum cholesterol, HDL-C, triglycerides, and VLDL increased with 6 × RA (P < 0.05). Serum ALP decreased with 8 × RA (P = 0.004). Choline at 4 × and 6 × RA decreased serum BUN (P = 0.006). Fed or fasted respiratory quotient and energy expenditure did not differ among dietary choline doses (P > 0.05). These results suggest that dietary choline supplementation at 6 × RA may increase hepatic fat mobilization through increased lipoprotein transport and beneficially support hepatic health in overweight cats. Future studies that combine these results with existing knowledge of feline weight loss and hepatic lipidosis are warranted.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alexandra Rankovic
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, Ontario Veterinary College, University of Guelph, Guelph, Ontario, N1G 2W1, Canada
| | - Hannah Godfrey
- Department of Clinical Studies, Ontario Veterinary College, University of Guelph, Guelph, Ontario, N1G 2W1, Canada
| | - Caitlin E Grant
- Department of Clinical Studies, Ontario Veterinary College, University of Guelph, Guelph, Ontario, N1G 2W1, Canada
| | - Anna K Shoveller
- Department of Animal Biosciences, University of Guelph, Guelph, Ontario, N1G 2W1, Canada
| | - Marica Bakovic
- Department of Human Health and Nutritional Sciences, University of Guelph, Guelph, Ontario, N1G 2W1, Canada
| | - Gordon Kirby
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, Ontario Veterinary College, University of Guelph, Guelph, Ontario, N1G 2W1, Canada
| | - Adronie Verbrugghe
- Department of Clinical Studies, Ontario Veterinary College, University of Guelph, Guelph, Ontario, N1G 2W1, Canada
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Hadar BN, Lambrecht KJ, Poljak Z, Coe JB, Stone EA, Verbrugghe A, Bernardo TM. A technology-enhanced weight-loss program in multiple-cat households: a randomized controlled trial. J Feline Med Surg 2021; 24:726-738. [PMID: 34672236 PMCID: PMC9315194 DOI: 10.1177/1098612x211044412] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
Objectives The objectives of this study were to determine whether a technology-enhanced
weight-loss program, using a home pet health technology ecosystem, is an
effective tool in feline weight-loss management in multiple-cat households
and to evaluate its impact on cat behavior. Methods The study was a prospective parallel unmasked block-randomized controlled
trial comparing two weight loss intervention groups: (1) traditional group
with dietary restriction alone (n = 9); (2) technology group that used
dietary restriction, digital scales, smart feeders, activity monitors and
pet treat cameras (n = 6). A 12-week weight-loss program of client-owned
indoor-only two- or three-cat households with at least one overweight cat
was conducted in Canada and the USA. Owner impressions of the technology,
weight loss rates, smart feeder data, activity monitor data and
health-related quality of life (HRQoL) were assessed. Results The study was completed by 9/15 traditional group and 6/10 technology group
cats. Dropouts were mainly due to owner issues unrelated to the study. The
pet health technology ecosystem received favorable reviews (six responders).
Smart feeders and home scales were perceived as valuable additions, while
activity monitors and pet treat cameras were valued lower. The average
weekly weight-loss rate (percent loss of initial body weight) was higher
(P = 0.036) in the technology group (0.694%) than in
the traditional group (0.175%). Although not associated with weight-loss
rates, technology group cats trended toward grazing feeding patterns and
decreased daily activity counts, while HRQoL increased, on average, for all
cats. Conclusions and relevance This introductory investigation suggests that a technology-enhanced
weight-loss program would be accepted by cat owners and may deliver
advantageous outcomes in multiple-cat households, providing an effective and
practical tool in feline weight-loss strategies that will continue to evolve
as new technologies become available. It also illustrates the potential
value of data gathered from home monitoring devices and digital diaries,
providing deeper insights into pet behavior.
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Affiliation(s)
- Barr N Hadar
- Department of Population Medicine, Ontario Veterinary College, University of Guelph, ON, Canada
| | | | - Zvonimir Poljak
- Department of Population Medicine, Ontario Veterinary College, University of Guelph, ON, Canada
| | - Jason B Coe
- Department of Population Medicine, Ontario Veterinary College, University of Guelph, ON, Canada
| | - Elizabeth A Stone
- Department of Clinical Studies, Ontario Veterinary College, University of Guelph, Guelph, ON, Canada
| | - Adronie Verbrugghe
- Department of Clinical Studies, Ontario Veterinary College, University of Guelph, Guelph, ON, Canada
| | - Theresa M Bernardo
- Department of Population Medicine, Ontario Veterinary College, University of Guelph, ON, Canada
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Verbrugghe A, Rankovic A, Armstrong S, Santarossa A, Kirby GM, Bakovic M. Serum Lipid, Amino Acid and Acylcarnitine Profiles of Obese Cats Supplemented with Dietary Choline and Fed to Maintenance Energy Requirements. Animals (Basel) 2021; 11:2196. [PMID: 34438654 PMCID: PMC8388459 DOI: 10.3390/ani11082196] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/04/2021] [Revised: 07/20/2021] [Accepted: 07/21/2021] [Indexed: 12/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Obesity is a health concern for domestic cats. Obesity and severe energy restriction predispose cats to feline hepatic lipidosis. As choline is linked to lipid metabolism, we hypothesized that dietary choline supplementation would assist in reducing hepatic fat through increased lipoprotein transport and fatty acid oxidation. Twelve obese cats (body condition score [BCS] ≥ 8/9) were split into two groups. Cats were fed a control (n = 6; 4587 mg choline/kg dry matter [DM]) or a high choline diet (n = 6; 18,957 mg choline/kg DM) for 5 weeks, for adult maintenance. On days 0 and 35, fasted blood was collected, and the body composition was assessed. Serum lipoprotein and biochemistry profiles, plasma amino acids and plasma acylcarnitines were analyzed. The body weight, BCS and body composition were unaffected (p > 0.05). Choline increased the serum cholesterol, triacylglycerides, high-density lipoprotein cholesterol, low-density lipoprotein cholesterol, very low-density lipoprotein cholesterol and plasma methionine (p < 0.05) and decreased the serum blood urea nitrogen and alkaline phosphatase (p < 0.05). Choline also reduced the plasma acylcarnitine to free carnitine ratio (p = 0.006). Choline may assist in eliminating hepatic fat through increased fat mobilization and enhanced methionine recycling.
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Affiliation(s)
- Adronie Verbrugghe
- Department of Clinical Studies, Ontario Veterinary College, University of Guelph, 50 Stone Road East, Guelph, ON N1G 2W1, Canada;
| | - Alexandra Rankovic
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, Ontario Veterinary College, University of Guelph, 50 Stone Road East, Guelph, ON N1G 2W1, Canada; (A.R.); (G.M.K.)
| | - Shafeeq Armstrong
- Department of Human Health and Nutritional Sciences, University of Guelph, 50 Stone Road East, Guelph, ON N1G 2W1, Canada; (S.A.); (M.B.)
| | - Amanda Santarossa
- Department of Clinical Studies, Ontario Veterinary College, University of Guelph, 50 Stone Road East, Guelph, ON N1G 2W1, Canada;
| | - Gordon M. Kirby
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, Ontario Veterinary College, University of Guelph, 50 Stone Road East, Guelph, ON N1G 2W1, Canada; (A.R.); (G.M.K.)
| | - Marica Bakovic
- Department of Human Health and Nutritional Sciences, University of Guelph, 50 Stone Road East, Guelph, ON N1G 2W1, Canada; (S.A.); (M.B.)
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Bradley S, Alexander J, Haydock R, Bakke AM, Watson P. Energy Requirements for Growth in the Norfolk Terrier. Animals (Basel) 2021; 11:ani11051380. [PMID: 34066292 PMCID: PMC8152034 DOI: 10.3390/ani11051380] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/26/2021] [Revised: 05/07/2021] [Accepted: 05/10/2021] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
An appropriate energy intake for healthy growth can reduce the risk of obesity and co-morbidities, such as orthopaedic diseases. The 2006 National Research Council (NRC) universal equation calculates the energy requirement of growing dogs based on predicted adult body weight, but evidence suggests a revision may be required. This study investigates the energy requirements of seventeen Norfolk terrier puppies over their first year (10 to 52 weeks). Puppies were individually fed complete and balanced diets in amounts to maintain an optimal body condition score (BCS), recording intake daily and body weight and BCS weekly. To monitor health a veterinary examination, haematology and plasma biochemistry and serum measures of bone turnover were undertaken every 12 weeks. Skeletal development was assessed using dual-energy X-ray absorptiometry (26 and 52 weeks). Puppies were clinically healthy with normal skeletal development and healthy growth throughout. The energy intake to achieve this was significantly lower than that predicted by the NRC (2006) equation at all time points, with largest mean difference of 285 kJ/kg0.75 per day at 10 weeks. If fed according to the NRC 2006 equation, dogs would have been in positive energy balance, possibly leading to obesity. These data support a revision to the NRC (2006) equation.
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Impact of Obesity on Quality of Life and Owner's Perception of Weight Loss Programs in Cats. Vet Sci 2021; 8:vetsci8020032. [PMID: 33672603 PMCID: PMC7924056 DOI: 10.3390/vetsci8020032] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/28/2020] [Revised: 01/31/2021] [Accepted: 02/17/2021] [Indexed: 12/04/2022] Open
Abstract
Obese dogs have been shown to have a diminished quality of life; however, there is less evidence characterizing the impact of obesity on the quality of life of cats. A cross-sectional survey study was conducted among cat owners with either healthy weight cats (body condition scores of 4–5/9) or obese cats (body condition scores of 8–9/9) as determined by a veterinarian. Exclusion criteria included medical conditions (determined by physical exam and screening bloodwork). Cat owners completed surveys on quality of life and perceptions of feline obesity. Quality of life scores for obese cats had a wider range and were numerically lower compared to scores of healthy weight cats with a moderate effect size of 0.68, though this was not a statistically significant difference (71.2 ± 8.8 vs. 75.9 ± 4.1, p = 0.0881; n = 33). Owners of obese cats less frequently reported that obesity was a high risk to their cat’s health (77% [10/13]) vs. 100% [20/20]) and less frequently cited the primary caretaker as a cause of cat obesity (30% [3/10] vs. 55% [11/20]) compared to the owners of healthy weight cats. Interestingly, 97% (32/33) of all owners believed veterinarians should play a role in feline weight loss. These results suggest that some obese cats can have a potentially diminished quality of life but highlights the need for more data surrounding the impact of feline obesity and enhanced client communication strategies to best address obesity in the feline population.
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An international multi-centre cohort study of weight loss in overweight cats: Differences in outcome in different geographical locations. PLoS One 2018; 13:e0200414. [PMID: 30044843 PMCID: PMC6059437 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0200414] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/24/2018] [Accepted: 06/26/2018] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Introduction Feline obesity is a worldwide concern which has recently been formally classified as a disease by the veterinary community. Management involves invoking controlled weight loss by feeding a purpose-formulated food in restricted quantities and altering physical activity. Most weight loss studies conducted in cats have been undertaken in research cat colonies from single geographic locations. The aim of this multi-centre cohort study was to determine the efficacy of a short-term dietary weight loss intervention in overweight pet cats across a range of geographical locations globally. Materials and methods A 3-month (median 13 weeks, inter-quartile range [IQR] 12–15 weeks) weight loss programme was conducted at 188 veterinary practices in 22 countries, and involving 730 cats, 413 of which completed the programme and had complete data available. All were fed commercially available dry or wet weight loss diets, and median energy intake was 53 kcal/kg BW0.711/day. The Royal Canin Ethics Committee approved the study, and owners gave informed consent. Owners completed behavioural questionnaires assessing begging, physical activity and quality of life (QOL). Linear mixed models were used to assess the respective influence of time, age, and initial body condition score (BCS) on weight loss and behavioural observations. Results At baseline, median age was 72 months (range 12–200 months) and median BCS was 8 (range 7–9). In all, 402/413 cats (97%) lost weight (mean 10.6±6.3%) during the programme at a rate of 0.8 ±0.50%/week. Based upon owner questionnaires, activity and QOL improved (both P<0.001), while begging behaviour decreased (P<0.001) during weight loss. The main factor influencing percentage weight loss was geographical location (P<0.001), with cats in North America losing less weight (median 7.2%, IQR: 4.4–10.4%) than those in both Europe (10.7%, 6-8-15.4%) and South America (10.0%, 6.2–15.4%). Differences in weight loss were also observed amongst countries (P<0.001), with cats in Argentina, Germany, and Italy losing more weight than cats in the USA, and cats in Germany also losing more weight than cats in Portugal. Discussion/conclusion Most of the overweight cats enrolled in this international multi-centre study successfully lost weight. The reason for the differences in percentage weight loss amongst geographical locations requires further study.
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