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Barchilon M, Perez‐Nieves N, Palerme J. Evaluation of a urine dipstick protein to urine specific gravity ratio for the detection of proteinuria in dogs and cats. J Vet Intern Med 2024; 38:1060-1067. [PMID: 38305084 PMCID: PMC10937511 DOI: 10.1111/jvim.17001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/12/2023] [Accepted: 01/22/2024] [Indexed: 02/03/2024] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND The utility of urine dipsticks for the quantification of proteinuria is limited because of the influence of urine specific gravity (USG). To circumvent the need for urine protein creatinine ratios (UPCR) some have proposed a calculated dipstick urine protein to USG ratio (DUR) for the detection of proteinuria. However, the performance of DUR has not been evaluated in veterinary patients. OBJECTIVES Evaluate the correlation between DUR and UPCR, while also assessing the effect of urine characteristics on this relationship and evaluating the performance of DUR in detecting proteinuria. ANIMALS Urine samples from 308 dogs and 70 cats. METHODS Retrospective cohort study of urinalyses and UPCRs from dogs and cats collected between 2016 and 2021. RESULTS Both canine and feline urine samples showed a positive moderate correlation between the UPCR and DUR. The correlation was not influenced by the presence of active urine sediment, glucosuria, or urine pH. In detecting canine urine samples with a UPCR >0.5, an optimal DUR of 1.4 had sensitivity, specificity, positive predictive value (PPV), and negative predictive value (NPV) of 89%, 83%, 96%, and 63%, respectively. In detecting feline urine samples with a UPCR >0.4, an optimal DUR of 2.1 had sensitivity, specificity, PPV, and NPV of 70%, 100%, 100%, and 75%, respectively. CONCLUSIONS AND CLINICAL IMPORTANCE Use of the DUR can be a relatively reliable method for identification of proteinuria. However, given its poor NPV, the DUR cannot be recommended for exclusion of proteinuric patients.
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Affiliation(s)
- Michael Barchilon
- Department of Veterinary Medicine and SurgeryCollege of Veterinary Medicine, University of MissouriColumbiaMissouriUSA
| | - Nichole Perez‐Nieves
- Department of Veterinary Medicine and SurgeryCollege of Veterinary Medicine, University of MissouriColumbiaMissouriUSA
| | - Jean‐Sébastien Palerme
- Department of Veterinary Clinical SciencesCollege of Veterinary Medicine, Iowa State UniversityAmesIowaUSA
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2
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Seigner S, Weber K, Dorsch R. [Urinalysis in dogs and cats, part 2: Urine sediment analysis]. TIERARZTLICHE PRAXIS. AUSGABE K, KLEINTIERE/HEIMTIERE 2023; 51:336-350. [PMID: 37956665 DOI: 10.1055/a-2122-5324] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/15/2023]
Abstract
Examination of the urine sediment is part of a routine urinalysis and is undertaken in order to identify insoluble particles in the urine. This procedure is mainly used in the context of diagnostic evaluation of urinary tract diseases, but may also be useful for the diagnosis of systemic diseases and intoxications. Analysis of fresh urine is recommended as changes in cell morphology, cell lysis and in vitro crystal formation may occur in the course of its storage. Manual urine sediment analysis is still performed in many veterinary practices. Native wet-mount preparations are suitable for the identification and quantification of urine sediment particles. The examination of stained wet-mount preparations or air-dried smears may be necessary to further differentiate cells and to identify bacteria. For several years, automatic urine sediment analyzers have been available in veterinary medicine. These save considerable time and staff resources, however verification of the automatically generated results by an experienced observer remains necessary. Urine sediment particles that are frequently identified and clinically relevant include red blood cells, white blood cells, different types of epithelial cells, crystals, and casts as well as bacteria. Furthermore, parasite eggs, fungal hyphae, lipid droplets, spermatozoa, fibres, hair, mucus, plant parts or environmental contaminations may be found in the urine sediment and result in a complication of the result interpretation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sandra Seigner
- Medizinische Kleintierklinik, Ludwig-Maximilians-Universität, München
| | - Karin Weber
- Medizinische Kleintierklinik, Ludwig-Maximilians-Universität, München
| | - Roswitha Dorsch
- Medizinische Kleintierklinik, Ludwig-Maximilians-Universität, München
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3
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Mortier F, Daminet S, Duchateau L, Marynissen SJJ, Paepe D. Comparison of cystocentesis versus home sampling to determine urinary protein: Creatinine ratio and urine specific gravity in cats. J Vet Intern Med 2023; 37:1401-1408. [PMID: 37387324 PMCID: PMC10365041 DOI: 10.1111/jvim.16800] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/17/2023] [Accepted: 06/08/2023] [Indexed: 07/01/2023] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Urinalysis is necessary for the diagnostic evaluation of chronic kidney disease in cats. Performing cystocentesis is not always feasible, but data comparing urine obtained by cystocentesis in the clinic with voided samples collected at home are lacking in cats. OBJECTIVES To compare urinary protein:creatinine ratio (UPC) and urine specific gravity (USG) and to detect clinically relevant changes in proteinuria substage or urine concentration between urine collected at home and in-clinic by cystocentesis in cats. ANIMALS Ninety-two healthy and diseased client-owned cats. METHODS Prospective study. Owners collected voided urine at home and within 1 to 15 hours, cystocentesis was performed in the clinic. RESULTS In a subset of motivated owners, 55% succeeded in collecting urine at home. Overall, UPC was higher (mean ±SD difference = 0.09 ±0.22; P < .001) and USG was lower (mean ±SD difference = -0.006 ±0.009; P < .001) in cystocentesis samples than in voided urine. Substantial agreement existed between sampling methods for UPC (weighted к = 0.68) and USG (к = 0.64) categories. A different proteinuria substage (UPC < 0.2, 0.2-0.4, >0.4) was present in paired urine samples from 28% of cats. In 18% of cats, urine concentrating ability (USG < or ≥1.035) differed between both samples. CONCLUSIONS AND CLINICAL IMPORTANCE Home sampling of urine is a valid alternative to cystocentesis in cats. However, because clinically relevant differences in UPC and USG were present in 28% and 18% of cats, respectively, by the same collection method for monitoring each cat is advised.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | - Luc Duchateau
- Biometrics Research CenterGhent UniversityGhentBelgium
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4
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Seigner S, Weber K, Dorsch R. [Urinalysis in dogs and cats, part 1: physical and chemical urinalysis]. TIERARZTLICHE PRAXIS. AUSGABE K, KLEINTIERE/HEIMTIERE 2023; 51:168-181. [PMID: 37567179 DOI: 10.1055/a-2107-0361] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 08/13/2023]
Abstract
The urinalysis of dogs and cats is an important part of the diagnostic evaluation of urinary tract diseases as well as for the identification of systemic diseases. A routine urinalysis consists of a physical and chemical examination of the urine as well as an examination of the urine sediment. Various urine collection methods (free-catch, catheterization, cystocentesis) are available. Each method has multiple advantages and disadvantages. The appropriate method must be chosen individually for each patient depending on the emphasis of the examination. The urine should ideally be examined within 30 minutes of collection as it is prone to change due to time and storage. Physical examination of the urine consists of the determination of urine color, clarity, and specific gravity which provides information regarding the concentration of the urine. The latter is determined by refractometry and needs to be interpreted in the context of the hydration status of the patient. Chemical examination of the urine consists of the determination of the pH value and the presence of blood/hemoglobin/myoglobin, protein, glucose, bilirubin, urobilinogen, nitrite, and ketones. The use of commercially available urine dipsticks is common. These must be stored and used according to the manufacturer's instructions and when interpreting the results, veterinary aspects need to be taken into consideration. The physical and chemical examinations of the urine represent rapid and readily performable methods that provide important information for the diagnosis or the exclusion of numerous diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sandra Seigner
- Medizinische Kleintierklinik, Ludwig-Maximilians-Universität München
| | - Karin Weber
- Medizinische Kleintierklinik, Ludwig-Maximilians-Universität München
| | - Roswitha Dorsch
- Medizinische Kleintierklinik, Ludwig-Maximilians-Universität München
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5
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Leynaud V, Gillet C, Lavoué R, Concordet D, Reynolds BS. Evaluation of a smartphone-based colorimetric method for urinalysis dipstick readings in cats. J Feline Med Surg 2023; 25:1098612X231171434. [PMID: 37226706 PMCID: PMC10811987 DOI: 10.1177/1098612x231171434] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/26/2023]
Abstract
OBJECTIVES The aim of the study was to compare the diagnostic performances of a smartphone-based colorimetric method (SBCM) for urinalysis with a semi-automated point-of-care (POC) analyser using standardised solutions and cat urine. METHODS Artificial solutions (negative and positive quality controls, and purposely designed artificial urine) and natural urine from 216 cats were used. Two urine reagent strips were simultaneously dipped in each sample. One dipstick was read by the SBCM and the other by the POC analyser at the same time. Results for pH, proteins, bilirubin, 'blood', glucose and ketones were considered. Overall agreement and sensitivity, specificity and accuracy of the SBCM were determined based on selected cut-offs. RESULTS For the artificial solutions, 80 comparisons were obtained for each analyte and each expected concentration. The overall agreement (exactly the same result) between the two methods was 78.4%. SBCM sensitivity, specificity and accuracy were 99.0%, 100% and 99.3%, respectively. The correlation between the two methods was almost perfect (Cohen's kappa coefficient = 0.9851). For natural urine samples, the overall agreement (including pH) was 68.6%. Using optimal cut-offs for the SBCM determined from the results of analysis of artificial solutions, the sensitivity, specificity and accuracy of the SBCM were 100%, 76.02% and 80.5%, respectively. In this situation, the correlation between the two methods was moderate (Cohen's kappa coefficient = 0.5401). This was mostly due to a high rate of false-positive results for bilirubin (61.1%). CONCLUSIONS AND RELEVANCE With proper cut-off use (ie, considering positive or negative results) the SBCM evaluated here has a perfect sensitivity and appropriate diagnostic performances for proteins, 'blood', glucose and ketones. Based on these experimental data, this method appears suitable for dipstick urinalysis but positive results for bilirubin and proteins have to be confirmed.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Candice Gillet
- Université de Toulouse, ENVT, Toulouse, Occitanie, France
| | - Rachel Lavoué
- InTheRes, Université de Toulouse, INRAE, ENVT, Toulouse, Occitanie, France
| | - Didier Concordet
- InTheRes, Université de Toulouse, INRAE, ENVT, Toulouse, Occitanie, France
| | - Brice S Reynolds
- InTheRes, Université de Toulouse, INRAE, ENVT, Toulouse, Occitanie, France
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6
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Dowgray N, Pinchbeck G, Eyre K, Biourge V, Comerford E, German AJ. Aging in Cats: Owner Observations and Clinical Finding in 206 Mature Cats at Enrolment to the Cat Prospective Aging and Welfare Study. Front Vet Sci 2022; 9:859041. [PMID: 35445099 PMCID: PMC9014291 DOI: 10.3389/fvets.2022.859041] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/20/2022] [Accepted: 03/03/2022] [Indexed: 11/30/2022] Open
Abstract
Two hundred and six cats, aged between 7 and 10 years, from the North-west of the UK, were enrolled in a cat aging and welfare study to determine the frequency of age-related conditions and associations with husbandry, owner observations of physical appearance, activity and behavior. This is the largest study to date of mature cats that includes data from an owner questionnaire and clinical examinations. At enrolment, owners frequently reported physical changes (53%), behavioral changes (47%), changes to eating patterns (41%), and activity changes (40%) in their mature cats. On physical examination, 45% cats were in overweight condition and 12% were obese. A heart murmur was detected in 29% cats, whilst indirect systolic blood pressure (SBP) was >160 mmHg in 5% cats. Dental disease was present in 54% cats and was associated with a matted hair coat (P = 0.01), increased sleeping (P = 0.02), absence of gray hairs (P = 0.03), and increased irritability to other pets (P = 0.04). Abnormalities were evident in 58% of cats that allowed an orthopedic examination (OE) to be performed. These cats were older than cats with a normal OE (P = 0.01), and abnormal OE findings were associated with a matted coat (P = 0.03) and increased grooming (P = 0.04). Aazotaemia was present in 10% cats, and this was associated with cats being observed to “sniff their food and then walk away” (P = 0.04). Hyperthyroidism was diagnosed in 3% cats, who were older (P = 0.02), had a leaner BCS (P = 0.02) and lesser blood creatinine concentrations (P = 0.01). Hyperthyroid cats were also more likely to have increased liver enzyme activity and increased SBP (P = <0.001) compared with non-hyperthyroid cats. Of the 176 cats where all clinical assessments were conducted, only 12% had no evidence of any disease. Clinical abnormalities are commonly identified when thorough, clinical assessments are performed in mature pet cats visiting primary care practice.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nathalie Dowgray
- Institute of Life Course and Medical Sciences, University of Liverpool, Liverpool, United Kingdom.,International Cat Care, Tisbury, United Kingdom
| | - Gina Pinchbeck
- Institute of Infection, Veterinary and Ecological Sciences, University of Liverpool, Liverpool, United Kingdom
| | - Kelly Eyre
- Institute of Life Course and Medical Sciences, University of Liverpool, Liverpool, United Kingdom
| | | | - Eithne Comerford
- Institute of Life Course and Medical Sciences, University of Liverpool, Liverpool, United Kingdom.,School of Veterinary Science, University of Liverpool, Liverpool, United Kingdom
| | - Alexander J German
- Institute of Life Course and Medical Sciences, University of Liverpool, Liverpool, United Kingdom.,School of Veterinary Science, University of Liverpool, Liverpool, United Kingdom
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7
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Xavier Júnior FAF, Morais GB, Silveira JAM, Sampaio TL, Martins AMC, Silva ING, Viana DA, Evangelista JSAM. Kidney injury molecule-1 and urinary gamma-glutamyl transferase as biomarkers of acute kidney injury in cats. J Small Anim Pract 2021; 63:203-210. [PMID: 34665457 DOI: 10.1111/jsap.13440] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/11/2019] [Revised: 08/20/2021] [Accepted: 09/19/2021] [Indexed: 12/01/2022]
Abstract
OBJECTIVES To evaluate the concentration of kidney injury molecule-1 and activity of urinary gamma-glutamyl transferase in cats with urethral obstruction and healthy cats. MATERIALS AND METHODS Blood and urine samples were collected from a group of 15 healthy cats (control group) and a group of 20 cats with urethral obstruction at presentation, and 24 hours and 7 days after unblocking the obstruction. The serum creatinine, urinary creatinine and urinary gamma-glutamyl transferase were measured by spectrophotometry and kidney injury molecule-1 by the sandwich enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay. RESULTS On presentation, cats with obstruction had serum creatinine concentration and urinary gamma-glutamyl transferase index higher than healthy cats (mean difference 544 μmol/L, 95% confidence intervals 222 to 865 μmol/L, and 0.0022 U/μmol-uCre, 0.00043 to 0.0039 U/μmol-uCre, respectively), urine creatinine concentration lower (mean difference 25,624 µmol/L, 17,329 to 33,919 µmol/L), and no significant difference in the kidney injury molecule-1/urinary creatinine ratio (mean difference 13 pg/μmol-uCre, -33 to 59 pg/μmol-uCre). In the group of cats with urinary obstruction, over time serum creatinine decreased, urine creatinine increased, urinary gamma-glutamyl transferase index did not change significantly, and kidney injury molecule-1/urinary creatinine ratio increased. CLINICAL SIGNIFICANCE Cats with post-renal obstruction and potential intrinsic renal damage had higher urinary gamma-glutamyl transferase index than healthy cats at the time of presentation and showed increase in kidney injury molecule-1/urinary creatinine ratio over time.
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Affiliation(s)
- F A F Xavier Júnior
- Faculty of Veterinary, State University of Ceará, Fortaleza, 60714-903, Brazil
| | - G B Morais
- Faculty of Veterinary, State University of Ceará, Fortaleza, 60714-903, Brazil
| | - J A M Silveira
- Department of Physiology and Pharmacology, Faculty of Medicine, Federal University of Ceará, Fortaleza, 60020-181, Brazil
| | - T L Sampaio
- Department of Physiology and Pharmacology, Faculty of Medicine, Federal University of Ceará, Fortaleza, 60020-181, Brazil
| | - A M C Martins
- Department of Physiology and Pharmacology, Faculty of Medicine, Federal University of Ceará, Fortaleza, 60020-181, Brazil
| | - I N G Silva
- Faculty of Veterinary, State University of Ceará, Fortaleza, 60714-903, Brazil
| | - D A Viana
- PATHOVET - Veterinary Anatomic and Clinical Pathology, Fortaleza, 60020-001, Brazil
| | - J S A M Evangelista
- Faculty of Veterinary, State University of Ceará, Fortaleza, 60714-903, Brazil
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8
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Yadav SN, Ahmed N, Nath AJ, Mahanta D, Kalita MK. Urinalysis in dog and cat: A review. Vet World 2020; 13:2133-2141. [PMID: 33281347 PMCID: PMC7704312 DOI: 10.14202/vetworld.2020.2133-2141] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/12/2020] [Accepted: 09/03/2020] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Urinalysis is the examination of normal and abnormal constituents of urine. It is an easy, cheap, and vital initial diagnostic test for veterinarians. Complete urinalysis includes the examination of color, odor, turbidity, volume, pH, specific gravity, protein, glucose, ketones, blood, erythrocytes, leukocytes, epithelial cells, casts, crystal, and organisms. Semi-quantitative urine analysis with urine dipsticks, as well as an automatic analyzer, provides multiple biochemical data. Contamination is almost entirely avoided if the protocols for ensuring a proper sample have been followed, as mentioned still consideration must be given to the likelihood of contamination, even if the sample is correctly obtained. Interpretation of urinalysis will be doubtful if the knowledge of the interference is limited. Well-standardized urinalysis, when correlated in the context of history, clinical findings, and other diagnostic test results, can identify both renal and non-renal disease. This paper reviews significance of different components of urinalysis of dog and cat, such as collection, storage, examination, interpretation, and common causes of error in the result.
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Affiliation(s)
- S N Yadav
- Department of Veterinary Medicine, Lakhimpur College of Veterinary Science, Joyhing, Assam Agricultural University, North Lakhimpur, Assam, India
| | - N Ahmed
- Department of Animal Reproduction Gynecology and Obstetrics, Lakhimpur College of Veterinary Science, Joyhing, Assam Agricultural University, North Lakhimpur, Assam, India
| | - A J Nath
- Department of Veterinary Microbiology, Lakhimpur College of Veterinary Science, Joyhing, Assam Agricultural University, North Lakhimpur, Assam, India
| | - D Mahanta
- Department of Veterinary Anatomy, Lakhimpur College of Veterinary Science, Joyhing, Assam Agricultural University, North Lakhimpur, Assam, India
| | - M K Kalita
- Department of Animal Reproduction Gynecology and Obstetrics, Lakhimpur College of Veterinary Science, Joyhing, Assam Agricultural University, North Lakhimpur, Assam, India
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9
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Pérez-Accino J, Feo Bernabe L, Manzanilla EG, Puig J. The utility of combined urine dipstick analysis and specific gravity measurement to determine feline proteinuria. J Small Anim Pract 2020; 61:541-546. [PMID: 32692434 DOI: 10.1111/jsap.13184] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/10/2019] [Revised: 04/27/2020] [Accepted: 05/20/2020] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
Abstract
OBJECTIVES To assess the utility of urine dipstick strips for detection of feline proteinuria when used in combination with urine-specific gravity, compared with urine protein-to-creatinine ratio as the gold standard. MATERIALS AND METHODS Retrospective analysis of clinical records of comprehensive urine examination obtained from cats presented to a referral hospital. Diagnostic agreement and test accuracy were calculated for the dipstick test alone and in combination with the urine-specific gravity, using different cut-off values for proteinuria. Receiver-operating characteristic curves were also calculated. RESULTS A total of 121 urine samples were included. The diagnostic agreement between dipstick and urine protein-creatinine ratio was poor. A dipstick result of equal or greater than "Trace" (0.1-0.3 g/L) had a sensitivity of 81% and a specificity of 31% to detect proteinuria. Grouping the samples by urine-specific gravity did not increase dipstick agreement with the urine protein-creatinine ratio and only resulted in a slight improvement in the accuracy of detecting proteinuria. CLINICAL SIGNIFICANCE The dipstick test was not accurate for detecting proteinuria when combined with urine-specific gravity in cats. Clinicians should not rely on this test and, regardless of the urine concentration, other appropriate quantitative methods such as urine protein-creatinine ratio should always be performed to detect proteinuria in cats.
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Affiliation(s)
- J Pérez-Accino
- Ars Veterinaria Hospital, Carrer dels Cavallers 37, Barcelona, 08034, Spain.,Royal (Dick) School of Veterinary Studies, Easter Bush Campus, Roslin, EH25 9RG, UK
| | - L Feo Bernabe
- Ars Veterinaria Hospital, Carrer dels Cavallers 37, Barcelona, 08034, Spain
| | - E G Manzanilla
- Moorepark Animal and Grassland Research Centre, Teagasc, Cork, P61 C996, Ireland.,School of Veterinary Medicine, University College Dublin, Belfield, Dublin 4, Ireland
| | - J Puig
- Ars Veterinaria Hospital, Carrer dels Cavallers 37, Barcelona, 08034, Spain
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10
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Horwitz DF, Rodan I. Behavioral awareness in the feline consultation: Understanding physical and emotional health. J Feline Med Surg 2019; 20:423-436. [PMID: 29706091 DOI: 10.1177/1098612x18771204] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
Practical relevance: Awareness of the strong connection between observed behavior and physical and emotional health is essential for patient welfare. It is often a change in the individual's normal behavior that informs owners and veterinarians of the possibility of illness, pain and stress/distress. There is ample evidence in the feline literature that medical and behavioral health go hand in hand. In most feline cases, medical and behavioral conditions contribute concurrently to clinical signs. Clinical challenges: Our domestic cats do not express change in physiological and emotional states in a way that is easily recognized. Therefore, it can be difficult to diagnose medical and behavioral illnesses and ascertain contributions from each one to the final diagnosis. When various levels of stress are present, especially distress, this compromises behavioral and physical health, and influences treatment outcomes. AIMS This review is intended to help veterinarians recognize physical and behavioral changes associated with acute stress through to chronic distress, including stress-associated diseases. An emphasis on thorough history-taking will allow the clinician to ascertain which signs are behavioral and which are medical, with the understanding that they are not mutually exclusive. Equally important is the contribution of pain, chronic disease and poor environmental situations to behavioral changes and the expression of medical disorders. Evidence base: There is an increasing amount of evidence that stress and distress have profound effects on feline health, behavior and welfare. The authors have drawn on a substantial body of published veterinary research in producing this review.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Ilona Rodan
- Cat Care Clinic and Cat Behavior Solutions, Madison, WI 53717, USA
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11
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12
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Reppas G, Foster SF. Practical urinalysis in the cat: 2: Urine microscopic examination 'tips and traps'. J Feline Med Surg 2016; 18:373-85. [PMID: 27143040 PMCID: PMC11132200 DOI: 10.1177/1098612x16643249] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
SERIES OUTLINE This is the second article in a two-part series on urinalysis in the cat. The specific focus is urine microscopic examination. Part 1, which appeared in the March 2016 issue, discussed urine macroscopic examination. PRACTICAL RELEVANCE Urinalysis is an essential procedure in feline medicine but often little attention is paid to optimising the data yielded or minimising factors that can affect the results. CLINICAL CHALLENGES For the best results, appropriately collected urine should be prepared promptly by specialist laboratory personnel for the relevant tests and assessed by a clinical pathologist. This is invariably impractical in clinical settings but careful attention can minimise artefacts and allow maximum useful information to be obtained from this seemingly simple process. AUDIENCE Clinical pathologists would be familiar with the information provided in this article, but it is rarely available to general or specialist practitioners, and both groups can potentially benefit. EQUIPMENT Most of the required equipment is routinely available to veterinarians. However, instructions have been provided to give practical alternatives for specialist procedures in some instances. EVIDENCE BASE The evidence base for feline microscopic urinalysis is quite poor and information has largely been extrapolated from the human literature. Information from feline studies has been included where available. In addition, practical clinicopathological and clinical observations are provided.
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Affiliation(s)
- George Reppas
- Vetnostics, 60 Waterloo Road, North Ryde, NSW 2113, Australia
| | - Susan F Foster
- Vetnostics, 60 Waterloo Road, North Ryde, NSW 2113, Australia
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