Pesticide Exposure and Health Problems Among Female Horticulture Workers in Tanzania

Pesticide exposure and increased breast cancer risk in women population studies

Pesticide exposure is emerging as a risk factor for various human diseases. Breast cancer (BC) is a multifactorial disease with known genetic and non-genetic risk factors. Most BC cases are attibutable to non-genetic risk factors, with a history of adverse environmental exposures playing a significant role. Pesticide exposure can occur at higher levels in female populations participating in rural activities such as spraying of pesticides in the field, unprotected handling of pesticides at home, and washing of contaminated clothes. Exposure can also be significant in the drinking water of certain populations. Here, we reviewed the literature on women's exposure to pesticides and the risk of BC. We summarize the main links between pesticide exposure and BC and discuss the role of dose and exposure context, as well as potential mechanisms of toxicity. Overall, reports reviewed here have documented stronger associations between higher levels of exposure and BC risk, including documenting direct and acute pesticide exposure in certain female populations. However, discrepancies among studies regarding dose and mode of exposure may result in misunderstandings about the risks posed by pesticide exposure. Plausible mechanisms linking pesticides to breast cancer risk include their impacts as endocrine disruptors, as well as their roles as genotoxic agents, and modulators of the epigenome. Besides establishing links between pesticide exposure and breast cancer, the literature also highlights the critical need to understand the routes and doses of women's exposure to pesticides and the specific associations and mechanisms that are determinants of disease etiology and prognosis.

Exposure to Pesticides and Breast Cancer in an Agricultural Region in Brazil

Rural workers are disproportionally exposed to pesticides and might be at an increased risk of developing chronic diseases. Here, we investigated the impact of pesticide exposure on breast cancer (BC) risk and disease profile in rural female workers. This is a case-control study that prospectively included 758 individuals. The study was conducted in the Southwest region of Paraná state in Brazil, a region characterized by family-based agriculture and intensive use of pesticides. We found that this region has a 41% higher BC diagnosis rate and 14% higher BC mortality rate than the mean rates in Brazil, as well as a pesticide trade volume about 6 times higher than the national average. We showed substantial exposure in this population and found that even women who did not work in the fields but performed equipment decontamination and clothes washing of male partners who worked in the fields had urine samples positive for glyphosate, atrazine, and/or 2,4-D. The crude association showed a significantly higher risk of BC among women exposed to pesticides (OR: 1.58, 95% CI 1.18-2.13). Adjusted analyses showed a lower and nonstatistically significant association (OR: 1.30, 95% CI 41 0.87-1.95). Stratification on disease profile showed a significantly higher risk of lymph node metastasis (adjusted OR: 2.19, 95% CI 1.31-3.72) in women exposed to pesticides. Our findings suggest that female populations exposed to pesticides are at a higher risk of developing BC with a more aggressive profile and draw attention to the need to monitor rural populations potentially exposed to pesticides in the field or at home.

Chitosan/alginate nanogel potentiate berberine uptake and enhance oxidative stress mediated apoptotic cell death in HepG2 cells

Biopolymer-based nanoscale drug delivery systems have become a promising approach to overcome the limitations associated with conventional chemotherapeutics used for cancer treatment. Herein, we reported to develop a hydrophilic nanogel (NG) composed of Chitosan (Chi) and sodium alginate (Alg) using the ion gelation method for delivering Berberine hydrochloride (BBR), an alkaloid obtained from Berberis aristata roots. The use of different nanocarriers for BBR delivery has been reported previously, but the bioavailability of these carriers was limited due to phagocytic uptake and poor systemic delivery. The developed NG showed enhanced stability and efficient entrapment of BBR ∼92 %, resulting in a significant increase in bioavailability. The pH-dependent release behavior demonstrated sustained and effective release of ∼86 %, ∼74 % and, ∼53 % BBR at pH 5.5, 6.6, and 7.4 respectively after 72h, indicating its potential as a drug carrier. Additionally, the cellular uptake of BBR was significantly higher ∼19 % in the BBR-NG (25 μM) than in bulk BBR (100 μM), leading to enhanced ROS generation, mitochondrial depolarisation, and inhibition of cell proliferation and colony formation in HepG2 cells. In summary, the results suggest that the Chi/Alg biopolymer-based nano-formulation could be an effective approach for delivering BBR and enhancing its cellular uptake, efficacy, and cytotoxicity.

Associations between prenatal organophosphate pesticide exposure and placental gene networks

BACKGROUND

Exposure to organophosphate (OP) pesticides during pregnancy has been linked to deficiencies of neurobehavioral development in childhood; however, the molecular mechanisms underlying this association remain elusive. The placenta plays a crucial role in protecting the fetus from environmental insults and safeguarding proper fetal development including neurodevelopment. The aim of our study is to evaluate changes in the placental transcriptome associated with prenatal OP exposure.

METHODS

Pregnant farm workers from two agricultural districts in northern Thailand were recruited for the Study of Asian Women and Offspring's Development and Environmental Exposures (SAWASDEE) from 2017 to 2019. For 254 participants, we measured maternal urinary concentrations of six nonspecific dialkyl phosphates (DAP) metabolites in early, middle, and late pregnancy. In parallel, we profiled the term placental transcriptome from the same participants using RNA-Sequencing and performed Weighted Gene co-expression Network Analysis (WGCNA). Generalized linear regression modeling was used to examine associations of urinary OP metabolites and placental co-expression module eigenvalues.

RESULTS

We identified 21 gene co-expression modules in the placenta. From the six DAP metabolites assayed, diethylphosphate (DEP) and diethylthiophosphate (DETP) were detected in more than 70% of the urine samples. Significant associations between DEP at multiple time points and two specific placental gene modules were observed. The 'black' module, enriched in genes involved in epithelial-to-mesenchymal transition (EMT) and hypoxia, was negatively associated with DEP in early (p = 0.034), and late pregnancies (p = 0.016). The 'lightgreen' module, enriched in genes involved in myogenesis and EMT, was negatively associated with DEP in late pregnancy (p = 0.010). We observed 2 hub genes (CELSR1 and PYCR1) of the 'black' module to be negatively associated with DEP in early and late pregnancies.

CONCLUSIONS

Our results suggest that prenatal OP exposure may disrupt placental gene networks in a time-dependent manner. Such transcriptomic effects may lead to down-stream changes in placental function that ultimately affect the developing fetus.

Environmental risks of a commonly used pyrethroid: Insights from temporary pond species of the Lake Manyara Basin, Tanzania

Environmental risks posed by widespread pesticide application have attracted global attention. Currently, chemical risk assessments in aquatic environments rely on extrapolation of toxicity data from classic model species. However, similar assessments based on local species could be complementary, particularly for unusual living environments such as temporary ponds. Here, we carried out an environmental risk assessment (ERA) of a pyrethroid model compound, cypermethrin, based on local temporary pond species. First, we measured cypermethrin residue concentrations in rivers, irrigation canals and temporary ponds in the Lake Manyara Basin (LMB). Then, we estimated the environmental risks of cypermethrin by combining these data with acute toxicity data of three resident species across three trophic levels: primary producers (Arthrospira platensis), invertebrate grazers (Streptocephalus lamellifer) and fish (Nothobranchius neumanni). Furthermore, we compared the derived ERA to that obtained using toxicity data from literature of classic model species. Cypermethrin residue concentrations in contaminated systems of the LMB ranged from 0.01 to 57.9 ng/L. For temporary pond species, S. lamellifer was the most sensitive one with a 96 h-LC₅₀ of 0.14 ng/L. Regardless of the assumed exposure concentration (0.01 and 57.9 ng/L), the estimated risks were low for primary producers and high for invertebrate grazers, both for local species as well as for classic model species. The highest detected cypermethrin concentration resulted in a moderate risk estimation for local fish species, while the estimated risk was high when considering classic fish models. Our results confirm that, at least for pyrethroids, ERAs with classic model species are useful to estimate chemical risks in temporary pond ecosystems, and suggest that complementary ERAs based on local species could help to fine-tune environmental regulations to specific local conditions and conservation targets.

Pesticide Safety Awareness among Rural Farmers in Dadinkowa, Gombe State, Nigeria

INTRODUCTION

Because of the longer growing season and warmer climate, weeds and insect pests spread are on the rise, thereby increasing the demand for pesticide use and consequently harmful emissions that further exacerbate climate change. Unsafe occupational exposure to pesticide residue is associated with a lack of product knowledge and safety awareness among farmers in low- and middle-income countries (LMICs).

MATERIALS AND METHODS

A cross-sectional descriptive study design was adopted for this study in which a face-to-face administered questionnaire was used to collect data from 285 respondents who were selected using convenient snowball sampling technique. Knowledge, awareness, and practices related to pesticide storage, handling, application, and containers disposal among the farmers were measured. Categorical variables were analysed and presented using descriptive statistics in the form of frequency count and percentage, while numeric items were summarized using mean and standard deviation.

RESULTS

Dichlorvos and Perfekthion 2.5 EC listed in the WHO Group I pesticide classification were among the most frequently used pesticides. Symptoms of pesticide intoxication reported include headaches (56.1%), dizziness (56.5%), skin irritation (53.3%), and fatigue (45.6%), respectively. Farmers' behaviour during pesticide application include blowing clogged nozzle with mouth (42.7%), talking while spraying (59.8%), and mixing pesticide with bare hands (31.1%). Furthermore, 38.5% of them use pesticide containers for other domestic purposes.

CONCLUSIONS

Socioeconomic factors, i.e., educational level, age, and years of farm practice, influenced farmers safety behaviour. Based on these findings, an approach that will help strengthen capacity building programmes and the enhancement of knowledge-based initiatives around the adoption of non-synthetic pest-control methods should be encouraged.

Occupational Factors Affecting Women Workers’ Sexual and Reproductive Health Outcomes in Oil, Gas, and Mining Industry: A Scoping Review

Objectives: Globally, female workers workforce in Oil, Gas, and Mining (OGM) industry have increased significantly. The complexities of the OGM operations and the extensive exposure to workplace hazards potentially affect the health status of workers, including sexual and reproductive health (SRH) outcomes of female workers. Yet, the current state of knowledge on SRH issues in OGM contexts seems to be limited and fragmented. This scoping review aims to identify the occupational factors that influence women’s SRH outcomes in OGM industry.

Methods: This scoping review followed the Joanna Briggs Institute’s guidelines (PRISMA) and was conducted in five databases, including the citation chaining via Google Scholar and manual search through relevant organisations and Government websites. Sixteen articles met the inclusion criteria and were analysed.

Results: Despite the scarcity of evidence, chemical and physical are found to be the predominant factors greatly influencing women workers’ SRH outcomes in OGM. Most studies showed menstrual and cycle disorders, and risky pregnancy as key SRH issues. However, menstruation disorder was considerably linked with psychological and organisational factors.

Conclusion: This review suggests further empirical research on the relationship between OGM occupational hazards and women workers’ SRH. This will contribute to improvements in workplace safety legislations, measures, policies, and management systems taking into account women’s needs.

When Local Trade-Offs between SDGs Turn Out to Be Wealth-Dependent: Interaction between Expanding Rice Cultivation and Eradicating Malaria in Rwanda

Interactions between SDGs are increasingly mapped and mediating factors that determine whether existing synergies or trade-offs can be identified. However, if and how the wealth status of the concerned population shapes whether SDG interaction constitutes a vicious or virtuous circle is largely overlooked. This article focuses on interaction between SDG2 (nutrition) and SDG3 (health), in particular, the relationship between rice production intensification and the fight against malaria, and thus the role of wealth in explaining the trade-off. This study employed a large-scale survey of rural households (n = 3968) in eastern Rwanda, conducted at a time when a rapid expansion of rice fields co-existed with a strong resurgence of malaria. Logistic regression shows that rice-cultivating households faced significant higher malaria risk, as proxied by fever incidence, confirming the negative externality of agricultural intensification on public health through offering a habitat for vector-borne diseases. Even though rice-cultivating households tend to be higher up the local wealth distribution than those outside the rice sector, its distributional effects are generally biased against the poor. Poorer households outside the rice sector hardly share in the benefits from increased rice production but suffer the consequences in terms of increased malaria risk. The case thus draws attention to the importance of using a distributional lens when analyzing interaction between SDGs locally.

Application of Postcolonial Feminist Theory, Chicana Feminist Thought, and Black Feminist Thought in Analyzing the Mental Health Needs of Latina Migrant Farmworkers: A Shared Legacy

The purpose of this theoretical article is to analyze the utility of postcolonial, Black, and Chicana feminist frameworks to inform nursing research and practice specific to mental health needs of Latina women migrant farmworkers. Twentieth-century Western feminist narratives overlooked the intersecting systems of oppression experienced by women of color, including Latina women. Feminist epistemologies are useful in understanding the complex sociopolitical contexts that have impacted women's health outcomes and well-being. This analysis is critical to shaping nursing care that meets the unique health needs of migrant farmworker women while considering their sociopolitical realities.

Level, source, and distribution of organochlorine pesticides (OCPs) in agricultural soils of Tanzania

This study investigated the level, composition, and spatial and vertical distribution of the organochlorine pesticides (OCPs) at 0-2 cm and 2-20 cm in the agricultural surface soils from Southeastern to Central-western Tanzania. Although the most abundant OCPs were DDT with a mean concentration of 2.29 ng/g, dieldrin (1.57 ng/g), and methoxychlor (0.79 ng/g), HCH was the most dominant (with detection frequency of 88%). OCP dominance was in the Southern Highlands, which is the most productive agricultural zone. Though there were indicators of recent inputs for some sites, OCP contamination was mainly historical. DDT contamination was dominated by p,p'-DDE and resulted from both technical DDT and dicofol while HCH contamination was dominated by γ-HCH and resulted from both technical HCH and lindane. Based on depth, the OCPs dominated mainly the upper 2 cm, which was associated with soil and environmental factors rather than recent inputs since most of the detected compounds were historical. Nevertheless, some sites showed exceptional high abundance in the lower soil with more concentration of parent compounds. Therefore, this study recommends the need for further studies on the influence of soil properties on OCPs' transport in the soil, surface water, and air. Besides, detection of recent inputs at some sites calls for more mapping of the OCPs in the country to strengthen their control and prevention of future risks.

Occupational Contact Dermatitis in Employees of Large-Scale Narcotic Crop Farms of Ethiopia: Prevalence and Risk Factors. A Self-Reported Study Using the Nordic Occupational Skin Questionnaire

BACKGROUND

Occupational skin diseases are the second leading occupational disease, accounting for almost 25% of all missed workdays. Occupational contact dermatitis (OCD) accounts for 70% to 90% of all skin disorders in the workplace. Only a few occupational epidemiology studies have looked into the prevalence and risk factors of occupation-induced dermatitis among narcotic crop farm workers around the world. Related studies in Ethiopia are even fewer.

METHODS

A cross-sectional survey was conducted in the Dirashe district of Southern Ethiopia from March 23 to April 12, 2021. Data was collected using a standardized interviewer-administered questionnaire. The history of contact dermatitis was determined using the standardized Nordic Occupational Skin Questionnaire version 2002 (NOSQ-2002). A total of 578 farm laborers took part in the study, which was conducted using a systematic random sampling. Descriptive statistics and multivariable regression were used to characterize the data and identify factors associated with occupational contact dermatitis.

RESULT

The prevalence of self-reported occupational contact dermatitis in the past 12 months among workers of large-scale Khat farms was (AOR: 67.80%, 95% CI [61.00, 76.23]). In the multivariable regression, being older (AOR: 5.51, 95% CI [1.79, 7.24]), working as a bundle binder (AOR: 5.74, 95% CI [2.12, 15.55]), not wearing personal protective equipment (PPE) (AOR: 2.50, 95% CI [1.64, 3.81]), and having poor knowledge of pesticides use, storage, and disposal methods (AOR: 2.50, 95% CI [1.64, 3.81]) were associated with occupational contact dermatitis.

CONCLUSION

Contact dermatitis caused by work is very common among Khat farm laborers. Measures to promote safe practices and reduce exposure to hazards, such as removing expired and/or banned chemicals, purchasing alternative pesticides that meet legislative requirements, job rotation and routine training of staff on safe practices, increasing safety signage, and performing risk assessments, as well as improving the quantity and quality of institutional protective equipment supplies may thus contribute to the enhancement of safe work practices.

Sustainable laser-based technology for insect pest control

Aphids damage directly or indirectly cultures by feeding and spreading diseases, leading to huge economical losses. So far, only the use of pesticides can mitigate their impact, causing severe health and environmental issues. Hence, innovative eco-friendly and low-cost solutions must be promoted apart from chemical control. Here, we have investigated the use of laser radiation as a reliable solution. We have analyzed the lethal dose required to kill 90% of a population for two major pest aphid species (Acyrthosiphon pisum and Rhopalosiphum padi). We showed that irradiating insects at an early stage (one-day old nymph) is crucial to lower the lethal dose without affecting plant growth and health. The laser is mostly lethal, but it can also cause insect stunting and a reduction of survivors' fecundity. Nevertheless, we did not notice any significant visible effect on the offspring of the surviving irradiated generation. The estimated energy cost and the harmless effect of laser radiation on host plants show that this physics-based strategy can be a promising alternative to chemical pesticides.

Multi-biomarker responses to pesticides in an agricultural population from Central Brazil

We evaluated farmworkers exposed to pesticides and individuals with no history of occupational exposure to pesticides. It was performed the comet assay to evaluate DNA damage. The immunophenotyping of TCD4⁺ lymphocyte subpopulations in peripheral blood was performed by flow cytometry. The single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) in PON1, XRCC1, IL6, IL6R, TNF-α, and MIR137 genes were evaluated by real-time PCR. The exposed group was composed mostly by males (69.44%), with direct exposure to pesticides (56%) and with an average age range of 46 ± 13.89 years, being that 58.3% of farmworkers directly exposed to pesticides and reported the full use of personal protective equipment (PPE). DNA damage was greater in the exposed group (p < 0.05), reinforced by the use of PPE to denote a lower degree of DNA damage (p = 0.002). In this context, in the exposed group, we demonstrated that the use of PPE, age, gender and intoxication events were the variables that most contributed to increase DNA damage (p < 0.0001). Besides, the exposed group showed a significant increase in the subpopulations of T lymphocytes CD3⁺CD4⁺ (p < 0.05) and CD3⁺CD4⁺CD25⁺ (p < 0.0001) and a significant decrease in CD3⁺CD4⁺CD25^-FOXP3⁺ (p < 0.05). SNPs in the TNF-α (rs361525) gene presented a difference in the genotype distribution between the groups (p = 0.002). The genotype distribution of TNF-α (rs361525) was also positively correlated with the DNA damage of the exposed group (r = 0.19; p = 0.01), demonstrating a higher risk of DNA damage in the farmworkers presenting the A mutated allele. Our findings demonstrate that pesticides can exert various deleterious effects on human health by damaging the DNA as well as by influencing the immune system in the case of both direct or indirect exposure and these issues are associated to age, gender, intoxication and the nonuse of PPE.

Maternal pesticide exposure and child neuro-development among smallholder tomato farmers in the southern corridor of Tanzania

BACKGROUND

Exposure to pesticides with its associated effects prenatally and in early childhood has not received much attention. There is little scientific data on this aspect in Tanzania therefore this study was meant to contribute to the deficit in the subject.

METHOD

A cross-sectional study was conducted to a sample of 286 participants of mother to child pair, whereby 172 and 114 were exposed and non-exposed respectively. Mothers who had been working in tomato sprayed farms were exposed and mothers who had not been working in the tomato sprayed farms were un-exposed. Child aged 0-6 years was chosen from each mother sampled but only one child found to be the youngest with the classified age was enrolled. Malawi child development Tool (M-DAT) was employed to assess the child level of development, height, and weight of the children were collected and analyzed by the WHO anthropometric calculator. A checklist and questionnaire were used to observe and assess maternal exposure. Bivariate and Multivariate analysis were conducted to assess the relationship between various factors of exposure.

RESULTS

Overall 15% of the children examined were not well developed and the most used pesticides were those posing neuro-development effects. On the bivariate analysis model, mothers who worked while pregnant were more likely to have a child with neuro-developmental effect OR=5.8(1.29-26.3). On multivariate analyses adjusted for age of the mother, variables which remain in the model were a distance from home [AOR=9.4(4.2-20.5)], and working while pregnancy [AOR=5.8(1.29-26.3)] other were removed due to collinearity effect. None of confounders had a potential significant effect but only nutrition seems to be the effect modifier [AOR=7.8(1.29-36.3)] when analyzed with working while pregnancy.

CONCLUSIONS

The findings from this study have indicated that maternal pesticide exposure among farmworker residents in the SAGCOT area has a potential association with child developmental effect.

Pesticide exposure among Bolivian farmers: associations between worker protection and exposure biomarkers

The use of pesticides has increased during the past decades, also increasing the risk of exposure to toxic pesticides that can cause detrimental health effects in the future. This is of special concern among farmers in low-to-middle-income countries that may lack proper training in the safe use of these chemicals. To assess the situation in Bolivia a cross-sectional study in three agricultural communities was performed (n = 297). Handling, use of personal protective equipment (PPE) and pesticide exposure were assessed by a questionnaire and measurements of urinary pesticide metabolites (UPMs). Results showed that methamidophos (65%) and paraquat (52%) were the most commonly used pesticides and that 75% of the farmers combined several pesticides while spraying. Notably, only 17% of the farmers used recommended PPEs while 84% reported to have experienced symptoms of acute pesticide poisoning after spraying. UPM measurements indicated high levels of exposure to chlorpyrifos, pyrethroids and 2,4D and that men generally were more highly exposed compared to women. Our study demonstrates that farmers who are better at following recommendations for pesticide handling and use of PPE had a significantly lower risk of having high UPM levels of most measured pesticides. Our results thus confirm the need of proper training of farmers in low-to-middle-income countries in proper protection and pesticide handling in order to reduce exposure levels and health problems.

Occupational exposure to pesticides and associated health effects among greenhouse farm workers

The number and production capacities of greenhouse farms have been increased across the globe, driven by an effort for addressing food security problems related to the rapid population growth and the effects of climate change. As a result, there was a large increase in the number of greenhouse farm workers who are typically involved in chemical preparations and pesticide sprayings, crop harvesting, and greenhouse maintenance activities. Considering the enclosed architecture of the greenhouse farm design and the frequent application of pesticides, the objective of this review was to characterize pesticide exposure levels and resultant health effects among greenhouse farm workers. While most health assessment studies were mainly based on self-reported symptoms, this review showed limited epidemiological and clinical studies on the assessment of the health effects of pesticide exposure on greenhouse workers' health. Reproductive disorders, respiratory symptoms, neurological symptoms, and skin irritations were the most reported health effects among greenhouse farm workers. Additionally, there were limited studies on respirable pesticide-borne fine and ultrafine particulate matters in greenhouse farms. Ventilation systems and indoor environmental conditions of greenhouse farms were not designed according to specifications of the American Society of Heating, Refrigerating and Air-Conditioning Engineers (ASHRAE). Among recommendations provided, long-term exposure assessments of pesticide effects on children born by greenhouse farm workers should be considered in future research. Also, compliance with ASHRAE indoor ventilation and environmental standards will be very important in reducing pesticide exposure and health effects among greenhouse farm workers.

General and reproductive health outcomes among female greenhouse workers: a comparative study

Background

Agricultural activities as well as exposure to pesticides could have many adverse effects on health status and reproductive outcomes especially in reproductive aged greenhouse workers. The present study aimed to compare the general and reproductive health outcomes between female greenhouse workers and housewives.

Methods

This cross-sectional study was conducted on 645 females of reproductive age. They were categorized into two groups according to occupation in greenhouse (308 female greenhouse workers as exposed group and 337 housewives as control group). Participants were interviewed using a questionnaire about reproductive outcomes and occupational status. Clinical measures include blood pressure (BP), pulse and respiratory rate (PR and RR), body mass index (BMI) and hematological parameters. Mann-Whitney U test was used to assess differences between two groups in quantitative variables. Chi-square or Fisher’s exact tests was used to determine the differences in the distribution of categorical variables. Data was analyzed using SPSS software version 16.

Results

The average daily working hours of the greenhouse workers were 6.94 ± 1.99 h. Only 44.3% of them used personal protective equipment. Data revealed that the rate of spontaneous abortion, infertility, low birth weight (LBW), abnormal births and preterm birth were significantly higher among the greenhouse workers compared to the control group (p ≤ 0.05). The average number of female infants in greenhouse workers was significantly higher than the control group (p ≤ 0.05). Clinical measurements indicated an increase in RR of greenhouse workers and mean of BMI was decreased in them. Hematological parameters demonstrated that there was a significant increase in white blood cells (WBC) and significant decrease in hemoglobin (Hb), hematocrit (HCT), mean corpuscular volume (MCV) and mean corpuscular hemoglobin concentration (MCHC) among the female greenhouse workers compared to the control (p ≤ 0.05).

Conclusion

Local government efforts is needed to address associated issues including acute effects on health and long-term health risks, resulting from pesticide exposure to greenhouse workers, and gender differences should be considered. Also, occupational health and safety training is necessary and can be helpful in reducing adverse reproductive outcomes.

Acute pesticide poisoning amongst adolescent girls and women in northern Tanzania

BACKGROUND

Acute pesticide poisoning (APP) is reported to affect community health worldwide but its burden in Tanzania is unknown particularly in women. This study examines APP involving adult females and adolescent girls 10 to 19 years in 3 regions of Tanzania which are famous for coffee and vegetable production.

METHODS

Over the period of 12 months, health facility-based surveillance for cases of APP was implemented in 10 Tanzanian healthcare facilities in 2006.

RESULTS

The study identified 108 APP cases of whom 31 (28.7%) occurred amongst adolescent girls. Suicide was the leading poisoning circumstances (60.2%) and the most vulnerable women were 20-29 years old who comprised 38.4% of all cases with suicide as circumstance. Organophosphates (OPs), zinc phosphide, paraquat and endosulfan were common amongst known reported poisoning agents. The annual APP incidence, mortality and Case Fatality Rate for women were 5.1/100,000, 0.2/100,000 and 3.7/100, respectively.

CONCLUSION

APP amongst women in Tanzania is common and this call for diverse preventive interventions to reduce poisoning incidents.

Pesticide Use and Serum Acetylcholinesterase Levels among Flower Farm Workers in Ethiopia-A Cross-Sectional Study

The flower industry in East Africa has grown in recent years, especially in the production and export of roses. The aim of this study was to assess pesticide use on selected flower farms in Ethiopia. Serum cholinesterase levels in workers were used as a marker of pesticide exposure. This study was a cross-sectional study involving 588 workers from 15 different flower farms. It had a response rate of 95.5%. The participants included 277 males (mean age 26 years; 148 pesticide sprayers and 129 non-sprayers) and 311 females (mean age 25 years; 156 working in greenhouses and 155 working outside the greenhouses). The researchers undertook structured interviews, blood sampling, and walkthrough surveys. Descriptive statistics and Poisson regression were used in the statistical analyses. A total of 154 different trade names of pesticides were found. Of them, 31 (27%) were classified as moderately hazardous by the WHO, and 9% were organophosphates. Serum levels of cholinesterase deviating from 50-140 Michel units were considered abnormal. Abnormal serum cholinesterase levels (above 140 Michel units) were found in 97 participants (16.5%, 95% confidence interval 13.7-19.7%). There were no differences between the four job groups regarding cholinesterase levels. The high prevalence of abnormal serum cholinesterase levels might indicate the presence of pesticide intoxication. Thus, there is a need for routine monitoring of all workers exposed to pesticides, not only sprayers.

Health problems from pesticide exposure and personal protective measures among women cotton workers in southern Pakistan

Women are the main cotton pickers in Pakistan even from their childhood, but due to unawareness of pesticide risks and poor knowledge of personal protection opportunities, they typically do not use personal protective measures. Albeit a major agricultural topic in Pakistan, relevant research is limited. The present study illustrates health problems from pesticide exposure during cotton harvest and the use of personal protective measures among 260 female cotton-picking workers from Shaheed Benazirabad District of Sindh Province in southern Pakistan. Skin injury, eye injury, headache, stomachache, and fever were the main health problems due to pesticide exposure according to workers' experience. Medical treatment costs of health problems were more than double (2.48 times higher) than preventive measures costs. More than half of the cotton workers surveyed did not use any protective measure during cotton picking, while 22.3% used a muffler/scarf/cloth for covering their face and 10.8% used gloves. Covering face with muffler/scarf/cloth was higher in young (P < 0.05), married (P < 0.05), and high experienced workers (P < 0.05), while no significant trends were found in the use of gloves. The use of protective measures was positively correlated with education and some experience in cotton picking. Binary logit regression showed that advanced age and high picking experience were positively associated with the use of personal protective measures, while illiteracy, traditional treatment, and medical treatment in case of illness were negatively associated with the use of personal protective measures. Findings shed new light on the topic of personal safety among women cotton pickers in Pakistan. Increasing formal education and implementing training programs for personal protective measures are important to reduce health risk and health cost by pesticides among women workers.

Challenges for Exposure Science in Developing Countries

Occupational and environmental exposures are important contributors influencing the burden of disease in developing countries. It is important to quantify the impact of exposures from working and living environments on individual and population health in order to reduce the burden of related diseases. Despite the tremendous advances made internationally in the field of exposure science, numerous challenges, including low literacy levels, poor organization of work and living, legislative gaps, and limited exposure science capacity, exist in developing countries. In this commentary, these challenges are discussed and recommendations for the exposure science community to help in addressing the challenges are proposed.

Dynamics and monitoring of insecticide resistance in malaria vectors across mainland Tanzania from 1997 to 2017: a systematic review

Background

Malaria still claims substantial lives of individuals in Tanzania. Insecticide-treated nets (ITNs) and indoor residual spray (IRS) are used as major malaria vector control tools. These tools are facing great challenges from the rapid escalating insecticide resistance in malaria vector populations. This review presents the information on the dynamics and monitoring of insecticide resistance in malaria vectors in mainland Tanzania since 1997. The information is important to policy-makers and other vector control stakeholders to reflect and formulate new resistance management plans in the country.

Methods

Reviewed articles on susceptibility and mechanisms of resistance in malaria vectors to insecticides across mainland Tanzania were systematically searched from the following databases: PubMed, Google scholar, HINARI and AGORA. The inclusion criteria were articles published between 2000 and 2017, reporting susceptibility of malaria vectors to insecticides, mechanisms of resistance in the mainland Tanzania, involving field collected adult mosquitoes, and mosquitoes raised from the field collected larvae. Exclusion criteria were articles reporting insecticide resistance in larval bio-assays, laboratory strains, and unpublished data. Reviewed information include year of study, malaria vectors, insecticides, and study sites. This information was entered in the excel sheet and analysed.

Results

A total of 30 articles met the selection criteria. The rapid increase of insecticide resistance in the malaria vectors across the country was reported since year 2006 onwards. Insecticide resistance in Anopheles gambiae sensu lato (s.l.) was detected in at least one compound in each class of all recommended insecticide classes. However, the Anopheles funestus s.l. is highly resistant to pyrethroids and DDT. Knockdown resistance (kdr) mechanism in An. gambiae s.l. is widely studied in the country. Biochemical resistance by detoxification enzymes (P450s, NSE and GSTs) in An. gambiae s.l. was also recorded. Numerous P450s genes associated with metabolic resistance were over transcribed in An. gambiae s.l. collected from agricultural areas. However, no study has reported mechanisms of insecticide resistance in the An. funestus s.l. in the country.

Conclusion

This review has shown the dynamics and monitoring of insecticide resistance in malaria vector populations across mainland Tanzanian. This highlights the need for devising improved control approaches of the malaria vectors in the country.

Human intoxication by agrochemicals in the region of South Brazil between 1999 and 2014

The objective of this study was to evaluate pesticide poisonings in the southern region of Brazil between years 1999 and 2014. Data were collected from the database Sinitox. Intoxications and deaths were evaluated according to the distribution by gender (female and male), age group (≤14, 15-59 and ≥60 years), area of occurrence (urban and rural), circumstance (accident, occupational and suicide attempt) and evolution of the cases over time (cure, unconfirmed cure, death and sequelae). In the evaluated period, 21,305 cases of intoxication were registered. The results show that males between the ages of 15 and 59 years are more affected; and there is a greater representativeness in the urban area. These results are related to the application of agrochemicals being carried out by individuals between 15 and 59 years of age. The great correlation of urban area possibly occurs in function of the air currents brought from the field and as a result, population has been more affected and the consumption of contaminated food. It was observed that women handling pesticides more cautiously, in this way the accidents with male gender are more frequent, however, many women use the product intentionally to provoke suicide.

Exposição ocupacional a agrotóxicos, riscos e práticas de segurança na agricultura familiar em município do estado do Espírito Santo, Brasil

Resumo Objetivo: caracterizar a exposição ocupacional, percepção do risco, práticas de segurança e fatores associados ao uso de equipamento de proteção individual (EPI) durante a manipulação de agrotóxicos. Métodos: estudo transversal com amostra representativa de agricultores de Santa Maria de Jetibá, Espírito Santo. Procedeu-se à caracterização sociodemográfica e ocupacional dos agricultores com exposição direta a agrotóxicos e a identificação dos ingredientes ativos e classificação toxicológica dos produtos utilizados. Resultados: foram referidas 106 marcas comerciais, 45 grupos químicos e 77 ingredientes ativos. Houve predomínio do herbicida glifosato. Dos 550 agricultores avaliados 89% referiram uso de agrotóxicos extremamente tóxicos, 56,3% utilizavam mais de cinco agrotóxicos e 51% trabalhavam há mais de 20 anos em contato direto com estes produtos. Metade não lia rótulo dos agrotóxicos, mais de um terço não observava o tempo de carência para colheita e reaplicação e nem o de reentrada na lavoura; 71,4% não utilizavam EPI ou utilizavam de forma incompleta. Entre os fatores associados à não utilização do EPI, destaca-se a classe socioeconômica (p = 0,002), baixa escolaridade (p = 0,05), falta de suporte técnico (p < 0,001) e não leitura dos rótulos (p < 0,001). Conclusão: os agricultores apresentaram exposição ocupacional prolongada a múltiplos agrotóxicos de elevada toxidade, referindo práticas inseguras de manuseio.

Serum β-glucuronidase activity as a biomarker for acute cholinesterase inhibitor pesticide poisoning

β-glucuronidase (BG) activity is a promising biomarker for diagnosis and prognosis after exposure to organophosphorous (OP) pesticides. The aim of this study was to evaluate the changes in serum BG activity in patients with acute OP poisoning and to determine whether these changes correlate with the severity of poisoning. Thirty patients with anticholinesterase pesticide poisoning were included, besides 10 healthy volunteers as a control group. Serum activities of butyrylcholinesterase (BuChE) and BG were measured for each subject on admission, then after 12 and 24 h. Serum levels of BuChE and BG in poisoned patients were significantly different from the control subjects; these differences persisted in repeated measurements. Moreover, the serum levels showed significant differences within each group of the three time points. A significant negative correlation was found between the serum activities of BuChE and BG in all groups at the three time points. In conclusion, serum BG activity seems a reliable marker for OP poisoning even when measured at 24 h after poisoning.

Health Symptoms Associated with Pesticides Exposure among Flower and Onion Pesticide Applicators in Arusha Region

INTRODUCTION

Pesticides are extensively used in agriculture to control harmful pests and prevent crop yield losses or product damage. In Tanzania several studies have been conducted on health effects of pesticides on agricultural workers. However, there are few studies on neurological health symptoms associated with pesticide exposure in flower and onion farms.

OBJECTIVE

The objective of this cross-sectional study was to assess health symptoms associated with pesticide exposure among flower and onion pesticide applicators in the Arusha region, Tanzania.

METHODS

Data on demographic variables and health symptoms associated with pesticide exposure were collected from 140 males who were employed in spraying pesticides on flower and onion farms in Arusha, Meru and Karatu districts between April and May 2017. The study participants were interviewed using a structured questionnaire with questions focusing sociodemographic characteristics, occupation, pesticide exposure, common type of pesticide used in the area and neurological symptoms experienced during and after pesticide spraying. To determine the intensity of pesticide exposure, acetylcholinesterase assay was done by using the Test-mate Model 400 device with a photometric sensor.

RESULTS

Ninety-five percent of pesticide applicators reported handling organophosphate pesticides. Body weakness was the most frequently reported neurological symptom (57.1%) followed by perspiration and headache (40.7%), poor appetite and depression (29.3%) and irritation (26.4%). About 27% of pesticide applicators had an acetylcholinesterase level below the limit value.

CONCLUSION

A high proportion of neurological health symptoms and cholinesterase test depression was noted among pesticide applicators in both farms. There is a need to conduct further studies to ascertain causality for such high instances of neurological symptoms.

Silicone Wristband Passive Samplers Yield Highly Individualized Pesticide Residue Exposure Profiles

Monitoring human exposure to pesticides and pesticide residues (PRs) remains crucial for informing public health policies, despite strict regulation of plant protection product and biocide use. We used 72 low-cost silicone wristbands as noninvasive passive samplers to assess cumulative 5-day exposure of 30 individuals to polar PRs. Ethyl acetate extraction and LC-MS/MS analysis were used for the identification of PRs. Thirty-one PRs were detected of which 15 PRs (48%) were detected only in worn wristbands, not in environmental controls. The PRs included 16 fungicides (52%), 8 insecticides (26%), 2 herbicides (6%), 3 pesticide derivatives (10%), 1 insect repellent (3%), and 1 pesticide synergist (3%). Five detected pesticides were not approved for plant protection use in the EU. Smoking and dietary habits that favor vegetable consumption were associated with higher numbers and higher cumulative concentrations of PRs in wristbands. Wristbands featured unique PR combinations. Our results suggest both environment and diet contributed to PR exposure in our study group. Silicone wristbands could serve as sensitive passive samplers to screen population-wide cumulative dietary and environmental exposure to authorized, unauthorized and banned pesticides.