Negatively phrased items of the Autism Spectrum Quotient function differently for groups with and without autism

First things first: An exploration of the effects of psychoeducation for older autistic adults

LAY ABSTRACT

After receiving an autism diagnosis, psychoeducation (i.e. information regarding autism) is a first intervention. We adjusted a psychoeducation program that was originally developed by the Dutch Association for Autism for older adults to enhance its feasibility and efficacy in later life. We expected that participants would report an increase in knowledge and acceptance of the diagnosis and that people close to them would also observe this. Indeed, we found this and participants and those close to them agreed on this. Furthermore, we found some evidence that older autistic adults were better at coping with their autism. We found no positive intervention effects on psychological distress. The feedback of participants and informants about the psychoeducation program was largely positive. In future research, we advise using larger group samples and larger time scales and we also advise to further adjust the program to the needs and requirements of older adults, and to help older autistic adults to construct a new narrative of themselves, and the life they have lived, in the light of the recent autism diagnosis.

Examination of the Potential Moderating Role of Psychological Wellbeing in the Relationship Between Depression and Thoughts of Self-Harm in Autistic Adolescents and Adults: A Two-Year Longitudinal Study

PURPOSE

Autistic people have a significantly increased risk of death by suicide relative to the general population. In non-autistic samples, psychological wellbeing has been shown to moderate the relationship between depression and suicidal thoughts and behavior. Thoughts of self-harm may provide a useful indicator of suicidal risk. In this longitudinal study we examined (a) the potential role for psychological wellbeing to moderate the relationship between depressive symptoms and thoughts of self-harm and (b) the contribution of autistic traits to thoughts of self-harm.

METHODS

Participants were 209 autistic adolescents and adults aged 15 to 80 years (Mage = 34.20, SD = 15.38 years).

RESULTS

At both baseline and 2-year follow-up, 35% of participants reported recent thoughts of self-harm. Wellbeing was associated with autistic traits (r = - .350 to - 0.404) and depression (r = - .480 to - 0.759). Thoughts of self-harm were positively associated with autistic traits and depression (r = .242 to 0.659), and negatively associated with wellbeing (r = - .287 to - 0.609). Controlling for baseline thoughts of self-harm, depression (β = 0.254, p = .001) and autistic traits (β = 0.162, p = .007) significantly predicted thoughts of self-harm at 2-year follow-up.

CONCLUSION

Despite a lack of support for the hypothesis that wellbeing would moderate the relationship between depression and thoughts of self-harm, correlational data demonstrated significant associations between wellbeing and both depression and thoughts of self-harm. Future research considering psychological wellbeing as a potential protective factor for self-harm in autistic people is warranted.

Self-reported autistic traits and psychosocial outcomes among university students in Malaysia

LAY ABSTRACT

Most research on autism spectrum conditions is done on young children and not as much on young adults with autism spectrum conditions. Because of this, not much is known about how common autism spectrum conditions are in young adults and how they affect their mental and social health, especially in Southeast Asia. Based on self-reports, 2.8% of the 2732 university students we looked at in Malaysia might have been diagnosed or thought to have an autism spectrum condition. Students who said they had or thought they had autism spectrum conditions had lower self-efficacy, more stress and a lower quality of life than students who said they did not have autism spectrum conditions. The results showed that university students with autism spectrum condition are more likely to have bad psychological and social outcomes than their peers without autism spectrum condition. Also, the link between autistic traits and psychosocial outcomes could depend on the culture.

Higher Sensory Sensitivity is Linked to Greater Expansion Amongst Functional Connectivity Gradients

Insofar as the autistic-like phenotype presents in the general population, it consists of partially dissociable traits, such as social and sensory issues. Here, we investigate individual differences in cortical organisation related to autistic-like traits. Connectome gradient decomposition based on resting state fMRI data reliably reveals a principal gradient spanning from unimodal to transmodal regions, reflecting the transition from perception to abstract cognition. In our non-clinical sample, this gradient's expansion, indicating less integration between visual and default mode networks, correlates with subjective sensory sensitivity (measured using the Glasgow Sensory Questionnaire, GSQ), but not other autistic-like traits (measured using the Autism Spectrum Quotient, AQ). This novel brain-based correlate of the GSQ demonstrates sensory issues can be disentangled from the wider autistic-like phenotype.

The factor structure and measurement invariance of the Autism Spectrum Quotient-28: A cross-cultural comparison between Malaysia and the Netherlands

LAY ABSTRACT

The AQ-28 is a questionnaire measuring autistic traits, that is, traits that are related to Autism Spectrum Conditions, but its reliability in other cultures has not been thoroughly evaluated. We, therefore, tested whether the properties of the AQ-28 are comparable between two countries with different cultures, Malaysia and the Netherlands. A total of 437 Malaysian and 818 Dutch participants completed the AQ-28 online. We measured whether the AQ-28 measures autistic traits similarly in Malaysia and the Netherlands. The AQ-28 measures autistic traits similarly, and the reliability was acceptable and good in the general population of Malaysia and the Netherlands, respectively. However, Malaysians scored higher than Dutch participants. Moreover, 11 AQ-28 items showed cultural bias, indicating that these items are answered/interpreted differently in Malaysia and the Netherlands. Cross-cultural differences in interpreting, reporting, and/or expressing autistic traits highlighted in this study could potentially explain why some items are culturally biased and why Malaysians score higher on these items. The findings of this work imply that cutoff scores derived from one culture should not be generalised to another culture. Moreover, the findings are informative for future development of culturally neutral or appropriate screening and diagnostic tools for autism.

Likelihood of identifying autistic traits with the autism spectrum quotient (AQ) in male juveniles with autism spectrum disorder (ASD) and severe behavioral problems (SBPs)

BACKGROUND

When screening for autism spectrum disorders (ASD), the Autism Spectrum Quotient (AQ) is generally considered to be useful. Whether the AQ is also a suitable screener for ASD in juveniles with severe behavioral problems (SBPs) is unknown. Due to the overlap of symptoms between ASD and SBPs, particularly in juveniles low on empathy, the screening capacity of the AQ might be constrained. The aim of the present study was to investigate whether (comorbid) SBPs affect the screening capacity of the AQ. The hypothesis is that male juveniles with SBPs - but without a diagnosis of ASD - will score higher than male juveniles without both SBPs and ASD.

METHOD

The AQ was completed by 216 male juveniles aged 15-18 years treated at an outpatient department of child and adolescent psychiatry. The 216 participants were categorized into four groups according to a clinical diagnosis of ASD and SBPs (defined as disruptive behavior disorder and/or delinquent behavior). Using multinomial logistic regression, we investigated whether the four identified groups, based on a diagnosis of ASD and SBPs, scored differently for the total score and subscales of the AQ.

RESULTS

Participants in the group with ASD (ASD+) but without SBPs (SBP-) were more likely to report higher levels of autistic traits than the reference group without both ASD and SBPs (ASD-SBP-), except for the subscale on attention to detail (ASD+SBP- OR = 1.04; 95%CI = 0.98-1.11). Participants in the group with both ASD and SBPs were more likely to report higher levels for the total AQ score (ASD+SBP+ OR = 1.03; 95%CI = 1.00-1.05) and the communication subscale of the AQ (ASD+SBP+ OR = 1.18; 95%CI = 1.07-1.31) than the reference group without both ASD and SBPs.

CONCLUSION

In outpatient male juveniles, SBPs do not affect the screening capacity of the AQ for autistic traits. In spite of the well-known overlap of symptoms between ASD and SBPs, male juveniles with SBPs but without a diagnosis of ASD do not score higher on the AQ than male juveniles without SBPs and without a diagnosis of ASD.

Autistic Traits and College Adjustment

This study evaluated the association of autistic traits (RAADS-14) with academic and social outcomes among college students using data from an online survey (N = 2,736). In the academic domain, the total trait score and all subscale scores (mentalizing deficits, social anxiety, sensory reactivity) were associated with course failure and academic difficulties independent of an autism diagnosis; the total score and mentalizing deficits also predicted lower grade point average (GPA). In the social domain, the total trait score and subscale scores were associated with lower odds of having a confidant, lower friendship quality, and higher odds of social exclusion. Subgroup analyses revealed that autistic traits had more consistently negative associations with social outcomes for students without an autism diagnosis than for students with a diagnosis. Associations were also more often significant for women than men. These results support the development of programs and services for students with autistic traits regardless of diagnostic status.

Modifying the social responsiveness scale for adaptive administration

PURPOSE

The social responsiveness scale (SRS) is frequently used to quantify the autism-related phenotype and is gaining use in health outcomes research. However, it has a high respondent burden (65 items) for large-scale studies. Further, most evaluations of it have focused on the school-age form, not the preschool form. More validity evidence of shortened forms is necessary in the general population to support the broader health outcomes context of use.

METHODS

We evaluated the psychometrics of the SRS in 7030 individuals from multiple predominantly neurotypical samples in order to shorten it based on non-autistic sample metrics. Analyses included item factor analysis, differential item functioning (DIF), and multiple-group item response theory (IRT) to place the SRS items on a comparable scale, which was then simulated via computer adaptive testing (CAT) administration.

RESULTS

The SRS was broadly unidimensional with few methodological residual dependencies. On average, males had more autistic characteristics than females, and preschoolers had fewer characteristics than school-age children. The final IRT calibration included 45 items equated across forms, and each form had 11 with significant wording discrepancies and 9 items with near-identical wording that exhibited form-related DIF. The CAT simulation suggested a median of 14 items was sufficient to reach a reliable score, demonstrating its feasibility across the range of impairments.

CONCLUSION

IRT allows practitioners the ability to get highly reliable scores with fewer items than the full-length SRS. This supports the future application of the SRS in a computer adaptive testing mode in both neurotypical and ASD samples.

Factors of relationship satisfaction for autistic and non-autistic partners in long-term relationships

LAY ABSTRACT

Previous research has found that autistic people report lower satisfaction in their romantic relationships compared to non-autistic people. However, the majority of this research has focused on autistic traits as barriers to relationship satisfaction, while overlooking the role of their partners in these relationships. Our study explored a range of factors in both autistic people and non-autistic partners of autistic people and how they may be linked to long-term relationship satisfaction. These factors included social and communication skills, personality traits, social loneliness, partner responsiveness, and sexual satisfaction. We found that partner responsiveness was a strong predictor of relationship satisfaction for both autistic and non-autistic partners, suggesting that rather than focusing intervention solely on the autistic person, the role of their partner should also be considered. Service providers who work with couples involving an autistic person to enhance their relationship satisfaction could focus on assisting their clients to identify each other's needs and how best to meet them.

Peak frequency of the sensorimotor mu rhythm varies with autism-spectrum traits

Autism spectrum disorder (ASD) is a neurodevelopmental syndrome characterized by impairments in social perception and communication. Growing evidence suggests that the relationship between deficits in social perception and ASD may extend into the neurotypical population. In electroencephalography (EEG), high autism-spectrum traits in both ASD and neurotypical samples are associated with changes to the mu rhythm, an alpha-band (8–12 Hz) oscillation measured over sensorimotor cortex which typically shows reductions in spectral power during both one’s own movements and observation of others’ actions. This mu suppression is thought to reflect integration of perceptual and motor representations for understanding of others’ mental states, which may be disrupted in individuals with autism-spectrum traits. However, because spectral power is usually quantified at the group level, it has limited usefulness for characterizing individual variation in the mu rhythm, particularly with respect to autism-spectrum traits. Instead, individual peak frequency may provide a better measure of mu rhythm variability across participants. Previous developmental studies have linked ASD to slowing of individual peak frequency in the alpha band, or peak alpha frequency (PAF), predominantly associated with selective attention. Yet individual variability in the peak mu frequency (PMF) remains largely unexplored, particularly with respect to autism-spectrum traits. Here we quantified peak frequency of occipitoparietal alpha and sensorimotor mu rhythms across neurotypical individuals as a function of autism-spectrum traits. High-density 128-channel EEG data were collected from 60 participants while they completed two tasks previously reported to reliably index the sensorimotor mu rhythm: motor execution (bimanual finger tapping) and action observation (viewing of whole-body human movements). We found that individual measurement in the peak oscillatory frequency of the mu rhythm was highly reliable within participants, was not driven by resting vs. task states, and showed good correlation across action execution and observation tasks. Within our neurotypical sample, higher autism-spectrum traits were associated with slowing of the PMF, as predicted. This effect was not likely explained by volume conduction of the occipitoparietal PAF associated with attention. Together, these data support individual peak oscillatory alpha-band frequency as a correlate of autism-spectrum traits, warranting further research with larger samples and clinical populations.

How Do Children with Autism Spectrum Disorder and Children with Developmental Delays Differ on the Child Behavior Checklist 1.5–5 DSM-Oriented Scales?

The Child Behavior Checklist 1.5–5 (CBCL 1.5–5) is applied to identify emotional and behavioral problems on children with developmental disabilities (e.g., autism spectrum disorder [ASD] and developmental delays [DD]). To understand whether there are variations between these two groups on CBCL DSM-oriented scales, we took two invariance analyses on 443 children (228 children with ASD). The first analysis used measurement invariance and multiple-group factor analysis on the test structure. The second analysis used item-level analysis, i.e., differential item functioning (DIF), to discover whether group memberships responded differently on some items even though underlying trait levels were the same. It was discovered that, on the test structure, the Anxiety Problems scale did not achieve metric invariance. The other scales achieved metric invariance; DIF analyses further revealed that there were items that functioned differently across subscales. These DIF items were mostly about children’s reactions to the surrounding environment. Our findings provide implications for clinicians to use CBCL DSM-oriented scales on differentiating children with ASD and children with DD. In addition, researchers need to be mindful about how items were responded differently, even though there were no mean differences on the surface.

Exploring Cultural Differences in Autistic Traits: A Factor Analytic Study of Children with Autism in China and the Netherlands

Autism spectrum disorders are diagnosed globally, but recognition, interpretation and reporting may vary across cultures. To compare autism across cultures it is important to investigate whether the tools used are conceptually equivalent across cultures. This study evaluated the factor structure of the parent-reported Autism Spectrum Quotient Short Form in autistic children from China (n = 327; 3 to 17 years) and the Netherlands (n = 694; 6 to 16 years). Confirmatory factor analysis did not support the two-factor hierarchical model previously identified. Exploratory factor analysis indicated culturally variant factor structures between China and the Netherlands, which may hamper cross-cultural comparisons. Several items loaded onto different factors in the two samples, indicating substantial variation in parent-reported autistic traits between China and the Netherlands.

Social cognition and self-reported ASD traits in young adults who have reported psychotic experiences: A population-based, longitudinal study

OBJECTIVE

Social cognition is considered a trait marker of psychosis, and has rarely been investigated in young adults who have reported psychotic experiences (PE). The aim of the present study was to explore whether social cognition, self-reported Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD) traits and functioning were associated with PE.

METHODS

Participants were invited to take part in a 10-year follow-up study (mean age 20.9 years), of whom 103 participants returned, including 41 who had reported PE either past or current. Social cognition (theory of mind, social perception and locus of control) was assessed and a self-report measure of ASD traits was administered. Psychopathology and global functioning were assessed using the SCID-5. Analyses investigated group differences between PE and controls, and the association between social cognition and functioning in the PE group. A mediation analysis investigated if the association between PE and social cognition was explained by ASD traits.

RESULTS

The PE group had poorer theory of mind scores (F = 4.22, p = .043), specifically for neutral and negative stimuli, and an external locus of control (F = 5.73, p = .019) in young adulthood. The PE group had a significantly greater number of self-reported ASD traits than the controls (χ²(2) = 10.65). External locus of control had a significant negative correlation with current role functioning in the PE group. The association between PE and social cognition abilities was not mediated by ASD traits.

CONCLUSION

Psychotic experiences are associated with poorer theory of mind and an external locus of control, as well as proportionally more self-reported ASD traits, in young adulthood.

Slow update of internal representations impedes synchronization in autism

Autism is a neurodevelopmental disorder characterized by impaired social skills, motor and perceptual atypicalities. These difficulties were explained within the Bayesian framework as either reflecting oversensitivity to prediction errors or - just the opposite - slow updating of such errors. To test these opposing theories, we administer paced finger-tapping, a synchronization task that requires use of recent sensory information for fast error-correction. We use computational modelling to disentangle the contributions of error-correction from that of noise in keeping temporal intervals, and in executing motor responses. To assess the specificity of tapping characteristics to autism, we compare performance to both neurotypical individuals and individuals with dyslexia. Only the autism group shows poor sensorimotor synchronization. Trial-by-trial modelling reveals typical noise levels in interval representations and motor responses. However, rate of error correction is reduced in autism, impeding synchronization ability. These results provide evidence for slow updating of internal representations in autism.

Variable Emergence of Autism Spectrum Disorder Symptoms From Childhood to Early Adulthood

OBJECTIVE

Autism spectrum disorder (ASD) is currently considered an early-onset neurodevelopmental condition. Follow-up studies of clinic-ascertained autism suggest that autistic symptoms typically decline with age, although symptom improvement is limited for some. To date there have been no population-based prospective studies investigating the natural history of autistic symptoms from childhood to adulthood. The aim of this study was to characterize the development and heterogeneity of autistic symptoms in a population-based cohort from childhood to age 25.

METHODS

Data were analyzed in a prospective U.K. population-based cohort (ALSPAC). Trajectories were derived using five assessments of the parent-rated Social and Communication Disorders Checklist (SCDC) spanning ages 7-25. Additional measures were used to validate symptom trajectories.

RESULTS

Three distinct SCDC symptom trajectory classes were identified: low (88.5%), declining (5.0%), and late-emerging (6.5%). Both the declining and late-emerging trajectory classes were associated with child and adult ASD measures, low IQ, communication problems, peer problems, and worse adult functioning compared with the low trajectory class. Male sex was associated with a higher likelihood of being in the declining trajectory class (odds ratio=2.84, 95% CI=2.19, 3.69). This sex difference was not observed in the late-emerging class (odds ratio=1.00, 95% CI=0.80, 1.24) compared with the low trajectory class.

CONCLUSIONS

ASD symptom levels that emerged early tended to decline across development, although impairment was still present in adulthood for some. For others, autistic symptoms emerged across adolescence and adulthood. This challenges our current understanding that ASD symptoms inevitably first manifest early in development.

Autistic traits in psychotic disorders: prevalence, familial risk, and impact on social functioning

BACKGROUND

Prevalence estimates of autistic traits in individuals with psychotic disorders (PD) vary greatly and it is unclear whether individuals with a familial risk (FR) for psychosis have an increased propensity to display autistic traits. Furthermore, it is unknown whether the presence of comorbid autism traits disproportionally affects the cognitive and behavioral aspects of social functioning in PD.

METHODS

In total, 504 individuals with PD, 587 unaffected siblings with FR, and 337 typical comparison (TC) individuals (16-50 years) were included. Autistic and psychotic traits were measured with the Autism Spectrum Quotient (AQ) and the Community Assessment of Psychic Experiences (CAPE). Social cognition was assessed with the Picture Sequencing Task (PST) and social behavior with the Social Functioning Scale (SFS).

RESULTS

For PD 6.5% scored above AQ clinical cut-off (⩾32), 1.0% for FR, and 1.2% for TC. After accounting for age, sex, and IQ, the PD group showed significantly more autistic traits and alterations in social behavior and cognition, while FR and TC only displayed marginal differences. Within the PD group autistic traits were a robust predictor of social behavior and there were no interactions with positive psychotic symptoms.

CONCLUSIONS

Levels of autistic traits are substantially elevated in PD and have a profoundly negative association with social functioning. In contrast, autistic traits above the clinical cut-off are not elevated in those with FR, and only marginally on a dimensional level. These findings warrant specific clinical guidelines for psychotic patients who present themselves with autistic comorbidity to help address their social needs.

'Anything but the phone!': Communication mode preferences in the autism community

LAY ABSTRACT

What is already known about the topic?There has been a lot of research into things like how autistic people's communication styles are different to those of non-autistic people, especially among children. This has tended to focus on parent reports and experiments, rather than asking autistic people about their own experiences and preferences regarding communication.What does this article add?This article is the first to ask autistic adults how they prefer to communicate in different scenarios. We asked whether they preferred to use a range of methods, such email, phone calls, letters and live messaging, in scenarios from education to customer services to friends and family. When contacting unknown people or organisations, we found that generally email was preferred, and phone calls were very unpopular. However, for friends, family and people they felt comfortable with, they preferred both face-to-face and written forms of communication (e.g. email and text message).Implications for practice, research or policyThe findings suggest that services should move away from a reliance on phone calls for communication. They should make sure that access to support is not dependent on the phone, and instead offer written options such as email and live messaging which are more accessible. Future research should investigate the impact of COVID-19 on autistic people's communication preferences, as video calling has become much more commonly used and potentially combines benefits and challenges of other modes discussed in this article.

Prior information use and response caution in perceptual decision-making: No evidence for a relationship with autistic-like traits

Interpreting the world around us requires integrating incoming sensory signals with prior information. Autistic individuals have been proposed to rely less on prior information and make more cautious responses than non-autistic individuals. Here, we investigated whether these purported features of autistic perception vary as a function of autistic-like traits in the general population. We used a diffusion model framework, whereby decisions are modelled as noisy evidence accumulation processes towards one of two bounds. Within this framework, prior information can bias the starting point of the evidence accumulation process. Our pre-registered hypotheses were that higher autistic-like traits would relate to reduced starting point bias caused by prior information and increased response caution (wider boundary separation). 222 participants discriminated the direction of coherent motion stimuli as quickly and accurately as possible. Stimuli were preceded with a neutral cue (square) or a directional cue (arrow). 80% of the directional cues validly predicted the upcoming motion direction. We modelled accuracy and response time data using a hierarchical Bayesian model in which starting point varied with cue condition. We found no evidence for our hypotheses, with starting point bias and response caution seemingly unrelated to Adult Autism Spectrum Quotient (AQ) scores. Alongside future research applying this paradigm to autistic individuals, our findings will help refine theories regarding the role of prior information and altered decision-making strategies in autistic perception. Our study also has implications for models of bias in perceptual decision-making, as the most plausible model was one that incorporated bias in both decision-making and sensory processing.

Validation strategies for subtypes in psychiatry: A systematic review of research on autism spectrum disorder

Heterogeneity within autism spectrum disorder (ASD) is recognized as a challenge to both biological and psychological research, as well as clinical practice. To reduce unexplained heterogeneity, subtyping techniques are often used to establish more homogeneous subtypes based on metrics of similarity and dissimilarity between people. We review the ASD literature to create a systematic overview of the subtyping procedures and subtype validation techniques that are used in this field. We conducted a systematic review of 156 articles (2001-June 2020) that subtyped participants (range N of studies = 17-20,658), of which some or all had an ASD diagnosis. We found a large diversity in (parametric and non-parametric) methods and (biological, psychological, demographic) variables used to establish subtypes. The majority of studies validated their subtype results using variables that were measured concurrently, but were not included in the subtyping procedure. Other investigations into subtypes' validity were rarer. In order to advance clinical research and the theoretical and clinical usefulness of identified subtypes, we propose a structured approach and present the SUbtyping VAlidation Checklist (SUVAC), a checklist for validating subtyping results.

Executive Functioning in 60+ Autistic Males: The Discrepancy Between Experienced Challenges and Cognitive Performance

As executive functioning (EF) is especially sensitive to age-related cognitive decline, EF was evaluated by using a multi-method assessment. Fifty males (60-85 years) with a late adulthood autism spectrum condition (ASC) diagnosis and 51 non-ASC males (60-83 years) were compared on cognitive tests across EF domains (cognitive flexibility, planning, processing speed, and working memory) and a self- and proxy report of the Behavior Rating Inventory of Executive Function-Adult Version. While no objective performance differences emerged, autistic males and their proxies did report more EF challenges than non-ASC males on the subjective measure. In order to know how to support the older autistic men who received their ASC diagnosis in late adulthood with their daily life EF challenges, it is important to understand what underlies these subjective EF problems.

The Friendship Questionnaire, autism, and gender differences: a study revisited

Background

The Friendship Questionnaire (FQ) is a widely used measure of friendships in autism research and beyond. This study sought to revisit the original paper where the measure was presented, using a larger sample of both autistic and non-autistic participants to examine gender differences in scoring. It also sought to expand upon the original paper by comparing FQ results to those of the Unidimensional Relationship Closeness Scale (URCS), to examine whether there are differences in how autistic people report on their general friendships in contrast to their most significant relationships.

Methods

Participants were recruited for an online study, and 949 people (532 autistic, 417 non-autistic) aged between 18 and 81 took part. Participants completed a demographic questionnaire, the Autism Quotient-28, the Friendship Questionnaire, and the Unidimensional Relationship Closeness Scale.

Results

We used robust regressions and Pearson's correlational analyses, conducted in R. Autistic people scored lower than non-autistic people on the FQ, and similar gender differences in the pattern of FQ scores were seen in both groups. There was a significant negative correlation between AQ and FQ scores in both groups. On the URCS, we took the data from those who rated specific close relationships and found that autistic people scored this relationship more highly than non-autistic adults did. There was a significant negative correlation between AQ and URCS scores in both groups. Also, in both groups, there was a significant positive correlation between FQ and URCS scores.

Limitations

The data is entirely self-report, and diagnoses could not be verified with a clinician, although AQ scores support self-identification as autistic. Also, the groups were not evenly matched on age and other demographic variables, although this was controlled for in analyses. It is also the case that more autistic than non-autistic people were unable to specify a close relationship to score on the URCS, meaning that a certain set of experiences are not represented in this data.

Conclusions

We conclude that our data replicates the core finding of the original FQ paper that autistic people score lower on the FQ. In contrast to that paper, however, we found that there were gender differences among the autistic population. Also, our inclusion of the URCS suggests that the intimate romantic relationships and best-friendships of autistic people can be of similar quality to those of non-autistic people, suggesting that there may be important differences in autistic people's relations with friends in general versus close friends and romantic partners.

Theory of mind performance in younger and older adults with elevated autistic traits

Little is known about the impact of aging with Autism Spectrum Disorder on theory of mind (ToM). While ToM difficulties appear to abate with age in older autistic populations, this has yet to be explored in the Broad Autism Phenotype (BAP). The current study examined ToM performance among younger (n = 49, aged 18-46) and older adults (n = 47, aged 60-91) who were classified as on the BAP (younger n = 18; older n = 21) or not (younger n = 31; older n = 26) using the BAP Questionnaire. ToM was assessed using the ecologically valid Strange Stories Film Task (SSFT) and the dynamic Happé-Frith Triangle Animations task (TA). A 2 × 2 analysis of variance examined the effects of autistic traits (BAP vs. non-BAP) and age (young vs. old). For both SSFT and TA, results showed autistic trait main effects on task performance (non-BAP > BAP). Age main effects were observed for some but not all metrics on TA (younger better than older), with no differences in SSFT. An interaction of autistic traits and age was observed in TA Intentionality, with younger non-BAP and younger BAP performing similarly but older non-BAP performing better than older BAP. Results show that younger and older adults with elevated autistic traits show poorer ToM performance. Despite ToM difficulties being common in later life in the general population, this effect was not observed when using a ToM task designed to reflect real-world scenarios. However, results suggest that autistic traits and age could interact to increase risk for poor ToM performance in older adults who endorse elevated autistic traits. Autism Res 2020, 13: 751-762. © 2019 International Society for Autism Research, Wiley Periodicals, Inc. LAY SUMMARY: The behaviors and characteristics commonly found in autism spectrum disorders have been linked to differences in understanding social situations. Similar difficulties have also been found in older age. We assessed social understanding in younger and older adults from the general population. Both younger and older adults who report more autism-like characteristics experience more difficulties with social understanding. However, few differences were found between younger and older adults.