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Chamberlain A, D'Arcy E, Whitehouse AJ, Wallace K, Hayden-Evans M, Girdler S, Milbourn B, Bölte S, Evans K. Reliability, Validity and Acceptability of the PEDI-CAT with ASD Scales for Australian Children and Youth on the Autism Spectrum. J Autism Dev Disord 2024:10.1007/s10803-024-06366-7. [PMID: 38678516 DOI: 10.1007/s10803-024-06366-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 04/19/2024] [Indexed: 05/01/2024]
Abstract
PURPOSE The PEDI-CAT (ASD) is used to assess functioning of children and youth on the autism spectrum; however, current psychometric evidence is limited. This study aimed to explore the reliability, validity and acceptability of the PEDI-CAT (ASD) using a large Australian sample. METHODS Caregivers of 134 children and youth on the spectrum participated in clinical assessments involving the administration of the PEDI-CAT (ASD), Vineland-3, PEDI-CAT (Original) and a feedback instrument. The PEDI-CAT (ASD) content was compared to the ICF Core Sets for ASD to summarize areas of functioning assessed and relevance to autism. RESULTS The PEDI-CAT (ASD) demonstrated good to excellent internal consistency and test-re-test reliability. Parallel forms reliability with the PEDI-CAT (Original) included significant correlations (good to excellent), however, t-tests showed significantly higher Social/Cognitive scores for the ASD version. Convergent validity results demonstrated that most PEDI-CAT (ASD) and Vineland-3 core domains were significantly correlated (poor to good). Content analysis revealed that the PEDI-CAT (ASD) covered less than half of the ICF Core Sets for ASD (mostly Activities and Participation codes). Just over half the codes assigned to the PEDI-CAT (ASD) were represented in the ICF Core Sets for ASD. Feedback on the acceptability of the measure was mixed, but overall was it was considered user-friendly and efficient. CONCLUSION The PEDI-CAT (ASD) had adequate psychometric properties and acceptability as a measure of Activities and Participation codes. However, it lacks comprehensiveness and relevance when compared to the ICF Core Sets for ASD and has the potential to overestimate functioning.
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Affiliation(s)
- Angela Chamberlain
- Curtin University, Perth, Australia
- Telethon Kids Institute, Perth, Australia
- Autism CRC, Brisbane, Australia
| | - Emily D'Arcy
- Curtin University, Perth, Australia
- Telethon Kids Institute, Perth, Australia
- Autism CRC, Brisbane, Australia
| | - Andrew Jo Whitehouse
- Telethon Kids Institute, Perth, Australia
- Autism CRC, Brisbane, Australia
- Stockholm Health Care Services, Stockholm, Sweden
| | | | - Maya Hayden-Evans
- Curtin University, Perth, Australia
- Telethon Kids Institute, Perth, Australia
- Autism CRC, Brisbane, Australia
| | - Sonya Girdler
- Curtin University, Perth, Australia
- Telethon Kids Institute, Perth, Australia
- Autism CRC, Brisbane, Australia
- Karolinska Institutet, Solna, Sweden
- The University of Western Australia, Perth, Australia
| | - Benjamin Milbourn
- Curtin University, Perth, Australia
- Telethon Kids Institute, Perth, Australia
- Autism CRC, Brisbane, Australia
| | - Sven Bölte
- Curtin University, Perth, Australia
- Karolinska Institutet, Solna, Sweden
- Stockholm Health Care Services, Stockholm, Sweden
| | - Kiah Evans
- Curtin University, Perth, Australia.
- Telethon Kids Institute, Perth, Australia.
- Autism CRC, Brisbane, Australia.
- The University of Western Australia, Perth, Australia.
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Marcilla-Jorda M, Grande C, Coelho V, Rubio-Belmonte C, Moro-Ipola M. Sensory Profile-2 in Autism Spectrum Disorder: An Analysis within the International Classification of Functioning, Disability and Health Framework. J Autism Dev Disord 2024:10.1007/s10803-024-06337-y. [PMID: 38613593 DOI: 10.1007/s10803-024-06337-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 03/28/2024] [Indexed: 04/15/2024]
Abstract
Autism spectrum disorder (ASD) is characterized by impairments in many functional areas requiring long-term interventions to promote autonomy. This study aims to map The Sensory Profile™ 2 (SP-2), one of the most widely used assessment tools in children with ASD, with the International Classification of Functioning, Disability and Health for Children and Youth (ICF-CY), developed by the World Health Organization (WHO). This will allow the identification of the functional dimensions covered by this instrument and the comparison with the ICF shortlist proposed for autism (ICF Core Set [ICF-CS]). The deductive content analysis described in the ICF Linking Rules was followed, along with a systematized process including statistical and reasoning techniques that could contribute to the improvement of ICF linking studies (Cohen's Kappa and percentage of agreement). 218 codes were identified, 71% of them were codes related to the body functions chapters, mainly linked to perceptual functions (b160), emotional functions (b152), and temperament and personality functions (b126). Concerning activities and participation chapters (29%) the most frequently used codes were: focusing attention (d160), carrying out daily routine (d230), and walking (d450). Even though the SP-2 items do not assess most of the functional features regarded as essential in the ASD ICF-CS, SP-2 encompasses a majority of problems concerning body functions. This instrument may be considered as part of a multidimensional assessment approach, to complement other sources that are more likely to assess activity and participation dimensions and guide a functional intervention.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Catarina Grande
- Faculty of Psychology and Education Sciences, University of Porto, Porto, Portugal
- Center for Psychology at University of Porto, University of Porto, Porto, Portugal
| | - Vera Coelho
- Department of Social and Behavioral Sciences, Universidade da Maia, Maia, Portugal
- Center for Psychology at University of Porto, University of Porto, Porto, Portugal
| | | | - Micaela Moro-Ipola
- Faculty of Health Sciences, Universitat Jaume I, Castello de la Plana, Spain.
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McLennan G, Dale SE, Gillim L, Weinblatt V, Wallerstein R, Naides SJ. Developing a Prospective Gestational Lyme Disease Study. Methods Mol Biol 2024; 2742:259-278. [PMID: 38165628 DOI: 10.1007/978-1-0716-3561-2_18] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/04/2024]
Abstract
Lyme disease in pregnancy is understudied. The few available reports of Borrelia infection during pregnancy collecting clinical outcomes, with or without confirmed fetal infection both in utero and neonatal, are limited to case reports and small series. Population-based studies are not available. We propose a prospective study of Borrelia infection during pregnancy based in obstetrical practices in both endemic and nonendemic areas, with long term follow-up of pregnancy outcomes and development assessment of offspring infected or exposed to Borrelia in utero using current serological, microscopic, culture, and molecular techniques. In addition to detection of Borrelia burgdorferi sensu stricto, additional Borrelia species and other pathogens known to be transmitted by ticks will be tested. Serial biospecimens including maternal and cord blood, maternal peripheral blood mononuclear cells and urine, and, when clinically indicated, amniotic fluid, chorionic villi, intrauterine cord blood, will be collected with clinical data, imaging, and for infections treatment medications. Offspring will be followed until age 5 years with annual developmental assessments to assess pregnancy outcomes. The study will require parallel development of a biorepository with strategies for management, data security and data sharing. A public-private partnership will be required to support the study.
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Affiliation(s)
- Graham McLennan
- Laboratory Corporation of America Holdings (Labcorp), Burlington, NC, USA
| | - Suzanne E Dale
- Laboratory Corporation of America Holdings (Labcorp), Burlington, NC, USA
| | - Laura Gillim
- Laboratory Corporation of America Holdings (Labcorp), Burlington, NC, USA
| | - Vivian Weinblatt
- Laboratory Corporation of America Holdings (Labcorp), Burlington, NC, USA
| | - Robert Wallerstein
- Laboratory Corporation of America Holdings (Labcorp), Burlington, NC, USA
| | - Stanley J Naides
- Laboratory Corporation of America Holdings (Labcorp), Burlington, NC, USA.
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Hill E, Calder S, Candy C, Truscott G, Kaur J, Savage B, Reilly S. Low language capacity in childhood: A systematic review of prevalence estimates. INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF LANGUAGE & COMMUNICATION DISORDERS 2024; 59:124-142. [PMID: 37563793 DOI: 10.1111/1460-6984.12944] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/11/2023] [Accepted: 07/25/2023] [Indexed: 08/12/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND AND AIMS Epidemiological studies have provided invaluable insight into the origin and impact of low language skills in childhood and adolescence. However, changing terminology and diagnostic guidelines have contributed to variable estimations of the prevalence of developmental language difficulties. The aim of this review was to profile the extent and variability of low language prevalence estimates through a systematic review of epidemiological literature. METHODS A systematic review of the empirical research (August 2022) was undertaken to identify studies that aimed to estimate the prevalence of low language skills in children (<18 years). A total of 19 studies published between 1980-2022 met inclusion criteria for review. RESULTS Studies reported prevalence estimates of low language skills in children between 1 and 16 years. Estimated rates varied from 0.4% to 25.2%. More stable estimations were observed in studies of children aged 5 years and older and those that applied updated diagnostic criteria to performance on standardised assessments of receptive and expressive language. CONCLUSIONS AND IMPLICATIONS The estimated prevalence of low language skills in childhood varies considerably in the literature. Application of updated diagnostic criteria, including the assessment of functional impact, is critical to inform advocacy efforts and govern social, health and educational policies. WHAT THIS PAPER ADDS What is already known on the subject Epidemiological research has informed our understanding of the origin and impact of low language capacity in childhood. Childhood language disorder is met with a rich history of evolving terminology and diagnostic guidelines to identify children with low language skills. Inconsistent definitions of and methods to identify low language in children have resulted in variable prevalence estimates in population-based studies. Variability in prevalence estimates impacts advocacy efforts to inform social, health and educational policy for child language disorder. What this study adds A total of 19 studies published at the time of this review aimed to provide estimates of the proportion of children who experience low language skills. Prevalence estimates varied between 0.4% and 25.2%, with more stable estimates reported in studies of older school-age children and those which utilised standardised assessments of both expressive and receptive language. Few studies utilised assessments of functional impact of language difficulties, which is misaligned with updated diagnostic criteria for child language disorder. What are the clinical implications of this work? This review reports substantial variability in estimates of the proportion of children and adolescents who live with low language skills. This variability underscores the importance of applying updated diagnostic criteria to identify the prevalence low language in childhood. Efforts to estimate the prevalence of low language must include measures of functional impact of low language skills. This aligns with clinical recommendations, which call for routine assessment of functional outcomes. To this end, we require a unified understanding of the term 'functional impact' in the context of low language, including the development and evaluation of measures that assess impact across emotional, social and academic domains.
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Affiliation(s)
- E Hill
- School of Allied Health, Faculty of Health Sciences, Curtin University, Perth, Australia
- enAble Institute, Curtin University, Perth, Australia
| | - S Calder
- Health Sciences, College of Health and Medicine, University of Tasmania, Launceston, Australia
| | - C Candy
- School of Allied Health, Faculty of Health Sciences, Curtin University, Perth, Australia
| | - G Truscott
- School of Allied Health, Faculty of Health Sciences, Curtin University, Perth, Australia
| | - J Kaur
- School of Allied Health, Faculty of Health Sciences, Curtin University, Perth, Australia
| | - B Savage
- School of Allied Health, Faculty of Health Sciences, Curtin University, Perth, Australia
| | - S Reilly
- Health Group, Griffith University, Gold Coast, Queensland, Australia
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D'Arcy E, Evans K, Afsharnejad B, Milbourn B, Bölte S, Girdler S. Assessing functioning for individuals with neurodevelopmental conditions: Current clinical practice in Australia. Aust Occup Ther J 2023; 70:43-60. [PMID: 35934786 PMCID: PMC10087051 DOI: 10.1111/1440-1630.12834] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/14/2022] [Revised: 07/22/2022] [Accepted: 07/24/2022] [Indexed: 01/31/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND In the disability sector globally, and specifically in Australia, assessments of functioning have become key to diagnostic processes, and accessing therapy and funding. Over half of all individuals accessing support through Australia's National Disability Insurance Scheme have a neurodevelopmental condition diagnosis. Little is known about assessments of functioning for this population. METHODS A mixed methods online survey was designed to understand the current assessment of functioning practices (including clinical contexts, concepts being assessed, and assessment methods) and barriers and facilitators to clinicians using best practice. Results were analysed descriptively, and differences between professions calculated where possible. Content analysis was used to explore qualitative comments. RESULTS Clinicians from various medical and allied health backgrounds completed the survey (n = 93), with varying ranges of age, experience, and education. Clinicians reported that they assessed functioning across age, setting, sector, funding body, and individuals with a wide variety of diagnoses. Missing from current practice is a clear transdisciplinary conceptualisation of functioning. The largest barriers to best practice were limited time, large caseloads, availability of appropriate tools, and lack of clarity from funding bodies. CONCLUSIONS Missing from current practice is a clear transdisciplinary conceptualisation of functioning.These results will help inform steps forward to improve assessment of functioning practices to ensure that all individuals receive appropriate and sufficient support.
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Affiliation(s)
- Emily D'Arcy
- School of Allied Health, Curtin University, Perth, Western Australia, Australia.,Telethon Kids Institute, Nedlands, Western Australia, Australia.,Cooperative Research Centre for Living with Autism, Indooroopilly, Queensland, Australia.,Curtin Autism Research Group, Curtin University, Perth, Western Australia, Australia
| | - Kiah Evans
- Telethon Kids Institute, Nedlands, Western Australia, Australia.,Cooperative Research Centre for Living with Autism, Indooroopilly, Queensland, Australia.,School of Allied Health, University of Western Australia, Perth, Western Australia, Australia
| | - Bahareh Afsharnejad
- School of Allied Health, Curtin University, Perth, Western Australia, Australia.,Curtin Autism Research Group, Curtin University, Perth, Western Australia, Australia
| | - Benjamin Milbourn
- School of Allied Health, Curtin University, Perth, Western Australia, Australia.,Telethon Kids Institute, Nedlands, Western Australia, Australia.,Cooperative Research Centre for Living with Autism, Indooroopilly, Queensland, Australia.,Curtin Autism Research Group, Curtin University, Perth, Western Australia, Australia
| | - Sven Bölte
- School of Allied Health, Curtin University, Perth, Western Australia, Australia.,Department of Women's and Children's Health, Karolinska Institutet, Solna, Sweden.,Stockholm Health Care Services, Region Stockholm, Stockholm, Sweden
| | - Sonya Girdler
- School of Allied Health, Curtin University, Perth, Western Australia, Australia.,Telethon Kids Institute, Nedlands, Western Australia, Australia.,Cooperative Research Centre for Living with Autism, Indooroopilly, Queensland, Australia.,Curtin Autism Research Group, Curtin University, Perth, Western Australia, Australia.,School of Allied Health, University of Western Australia, Perth, Western Australia, Australia.,Department of Women's and Children's Health, Karolinska Institutet, Solna, Sweden
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Evans K, Whitehouse AJO, D’Arcy E, Hayden-Evans M, Wallace K, Kuzminski R, Thorpe R, Girdler S, Milbourn B, Bölte S, Chamberlain A. Perceived Support Needs of School-Aged Young People on the Autism Spectrum and Their Caregivers. INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH AND PUBLIC HEALTH 2022; 19:15605. [PMID: 36497683 PMCID: PMC9737194 DOI: 10.3390/ijerph192315605] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/30/2022] [Revised: 11/16/2022] [Accepted: 11/17/2022] [Indexed: 06/17/2023]
Abstract
With increasing demands for health, disability and education services, innovative approaches can help distribute limited resources according to need. Despite an increased focus on support needs within the clinical pathway and policy landscape, the body of research knowledge on this topic is at a relatively early stage. However, there appears to be a sense of unmet support needs and dissatisfaction with the provision of required support following an autism diagnosis amongst caregivers of young people on the spectrum. The primary aim of this study was to explore the perceived support needs of Australian school-aged young people on the spectrum and their caregiver(s). This was achieved using a phenomenographic Support Needs Interview conducted by occupational therapists during home-visits with caregivers of 68 young people on the spectrum (5-17 years). Qualitative data analysis resulted in two hierarchical outcome spaces, one each for young people and their caregivers, indicating interacting levels of support need areas that could be addressed through a combination of suggested supports. These support needs and suggested supports align with almost all chapters within the Body Functions, Activities and Participation and Environmental Factors domains of the International Classification of Functioning, Disability and Health. The overall goals of meeting these complex and interacting support needs were for the young people to optimize their functioning to reach their potential and for caregivers to ensure the sustainability of their caregiving capacity. A series of recommendations for support services, researchers and policy makers have been made to position support needs as central during the assessment, support and evaluation phases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kiah Evans
- Telethon Kids Institute, University of Western Australia, Perth 6009, Australia
- School of Allied Health, University of Western Australia, Perth 6009, Australia
- Autism CRC, Long Pocket, Brisbane 4068, Australia
- Curtin Autism Research Group and School of Allied Health, Curtin University, Perth 6102, Australia
| | - Andrew J. O. Whitehouse
- Telethon Kids Institute, University of Western Australia, Perth 6009, Australia
- Autism CRC, Long Pocket, Brisbane 4068, Australia
| | - Emily D’Arcy
- Telethon Kids Institute, University of Western Australia, Perth 6009, Australia
- Autism CRC, Long Pocket, Brisbane 4068, Australia
- Curtin Autism Research Group and School of Allied Health, Curtin University, Perth 6102, Australia
- School of Psychological Science, University of Western Australia, Perth 6009, Australia
| | - Maya Hayden-Evans
- Telethon Kids Institute, University of Western Australia, Perth 6009, Australia
- Autism CRC, Long Pocket, Brisbane 4068, Australia
- Curtin Autism Research Group and School of Allied Health, Curtin University, Perth 6102, Australia
- School of Psychological Science, University of Western Australia, Perth 6009, Australia
| | - Kerry Wallace
- Telethon Kids Institute, University of Western Australia, Perth 6009, Australia
| | - Rebecca Kuzminski
- Telethon Kids Institute, University of Western Australia, Perth 6009, Australia
- Autism CRC, Long Pocket, Brisbane 4068, Australia
- Curtin Autism Research Group and School of Allied Health, Curtin University, Perth 6102, Australia
| | - Rebecca Thorpe
- Telethon Kids Institute, University of Western Australia, Perth 6009, Australia
| | - Sonya Girdler
- School of Allied Health, University of Western Australia, Perth 6009, Australia
- Autism CRC, Long Pocket, Brisbane 4068, Australia
- Curtin Autism Research Group and School of Allied Health, Curtin University, Perth 6102, Australia
- Karolinska Institutet Center of Neurodevelopmental Disorders (KIND), Centre for Psychiatry Research, Department of Women’s and Children’s Health, Karolinska Institutet & Stockholm Health Care Services, Region Stockholm, 171 77 Stockholm, Sweden
| | - Benjamin Milbourn
- Telethon Kids Institute, University of Western Australia, Perth 6009, Australia
- Autism CRC, Long Pocket, Brisbane 4068, Australia
- Curtin Autism Research Group and School of Allied Health, Curtin University, Perth 6102, Australia
| | - Sven Bölte
- Curtin Autism Research Group and School of Allied Health, Curtin University, Perth 6102, Australia
- Karolinska Institutet Center of Neurodevelopmental Disorders (KIND), Centre for Psychiatry Research, Department of Women’s and Children’s Health, Karolinska Institutet & Stockholm Health Care Services, Region Stockholm, 171 77 Stockholm, Sweden
- Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, Stockholm Health Care Services, Region Stockholm, 104 31 Stockholm, Sweden
| | - Angela Chamberlain
- Telethon Kids Institute, University of Western Australia, Perth 6009, Australia
- Autism CRC, Long Pocket, Brisbane 4068, Australia
- Curtin Autism Research Group and School of Allied Health, Curtin University, Perth 6102, Australia
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Hayden-Evans M, Milbourn B, D’Arcy E, Chamberlain A, Afsharnejad B, Evans K, Whitehouse AJO, Bölte S, Girdler S. An Evaluation of the Overall Utility of Measures of Functioning Suitable for School-Aged Children on the Autism Spectrum: A Scoping Review. INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH AND PUBLIC HEALTH 2022; 19:14114. [PMID: 36360993 PMCID: PMC9659140 DOI: 10.3390/ijerph192114114] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/30/2022] [Revised: 10/25/2022] [Accepted: 10/25/2022] [Indexed: 06/16/2023]
Abstract
A diagnosis of an autism spectrum condition (autism) provides limited information regarding an individual's level of functioning, information key in determining support and funding needs. Using the framework introduced by Arksey and O'Malley, this scoping review aimed to identify measures of functioning suitable for school-aged children on the autism spectrum and evaluate their overall utility, including content validity against the International Classification of Functioning, Disability and Health (ICF) and the ICF Core Sets for Autism. The overall utility of the 13 included tools was determined using the Outcome Measures Rating Form (OMRF), with the Adaptive Behavior Assessment System (ABAS-3) receiving the highest overall utility rating. Content validity of the tools in relation to the ICF and ICF Core Sets for Autism varied, with few assessment tools including any items linking to Environmental Factors of the ICF. The ABAS-3 had the greatest total number of codes linking to the Comprehensive ICF Core Set for Autism while the Vineland Adaptive Behavior Scales (Vineland-3) had the greatest number of unique codes linking to both the Comprehensive ICF Core Set for Autism and the Brief ICF Core Set for Autism (6-16 years). Measuring functioning of school-aged children on the spectrum can be challenging, however, it is important to accurately capture their abilities to ensure equitable and individualised access to funding and supports.
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Affiliation(s)
- Maya Hayden-Evans
- Curtin Autism Research Group, School of Allied Health, Curtin University, Perth 6102, Australia
- Telethon Kids Institute, University of Western Australia, Perth 6009, Australia
- Autism CRC, Long Pocket, Brisbane 4850, Australia
| | - Benjamin Milbourn
- Curtin Autism Research Group, School of Allied Health, Curtin University, Perth 6102, Australia
- Telethon Kids Institute, University of Western Australia, Perth 6009, Australia
- Autism CRC, Long Pocket, Brisbane 4850, Australia
| | - Emily D’Arcy
- Curtin Autism Research Group, School of Allied Health, Curtin University, Perth 6102, Australia
- Telethon Kids Institute, University of Western Australia, Perth 6009, Australia
- Autism CRC, Long Pocket, Brisbane 4850, Australia
| | - Angela Chamberlain
- Curtin Autism Research Group, School of Allied Health, Curtin University, Perth 6102, Australia
- Telethon Kids Institute, University of Western Australia, Perth 6009, Australia
- Autism CRC, Long Pocket, Brisbane 4850, Australia
| | - Bahareh Afsharnejad
- Curtin Autism Research Group, School of Allied Health, Curtin University, Perth 6102, Australia
| | - Kiah Evans
- Curtin Autism Research Group, School of Allied Health, Curtin University, Perth 6102, Australia
- Telethon Kids Institute, University of Western Australia, Perth 6009, Australia
- Autism CRC, Long Pocket, Brisbane 4850, Australia
- School of Allied Health, University of Western Australia, Perth 6009, Australia
| | - Andrew J. O. Whitehouse
- Telethon Kids Institute, University of Western Australia, Perth 6009, Australia
- Autism CRC, Long Pocket, Brisbane 4850, Australia
- School of Psychological Science, University of Western Australia, Perth 6009, Australia
| | - Sven Bölte
- Curtin Autism Research Group, School of Allied Health, Curtin University, Perth 6102, Australia
- Center of Neurodevelopmental Disorders (KIND), Centre for Psychiatry Research, Department of Women’s and Children’s Health, Karolinska Institutet & Stockholm Health Care Services, Region Stockholm, 104 31 Stockholm, Sweden
- Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, Stockholm Health Care Services, Region Stockholm, 104 31 Stockholm, Sweden
| | - Sonya Girdler
- Curtin Autism Research Group, School of Allied Health, Curtin University, Perth 6102, Australia
- Autism CRC, Long Pocket, Brisbane 4850, Australia
- School of Allied Health, University of Western Australia, Perth 6009, Australia
- Center of Neurodevelopmental Disorders (KIND), Centre for Psychiatry Research, Department of Women’s and Children’s Health, Karolinska Institutet & Stockholm Health Care Services, Region Stockholm, 104 31 Stockholm, Sweden
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