Hate Crimes and Race-Based Trauma on Latinx Populations: A Critical Review of the Current Research

Examining mental health correlates of hate-motivated behaviour in Scotland: An investigation of victims, perpetrators and victim-perpetrators

BACKGROUND

Hate-motivated behaviour (HMB) ranges from microaggressions to criminal acts and is a public health concern with wide-ranging consequences.

AIMS

The current study aimed to examine the mental health correlates of HMB perpetration, victimisation and co-occurring victimisation/perpetration.

METHODS

Participants (n = 447) completed an online cross-sectional survey assessing demographic factors, HMB (perpetration and victimisation), positive mental wellbeing and symptoms of depression and anxiety.

RESULTS

HMB victimisation was associated with lower positive mental wellbeing and increased symptoms of anxiety and depression. However, neither HMB perpetration nor co-occurring perpetration/victimisation were associated with any of the three mental health outcome measures.

CONCLUSION

Experiencing HMB as a victim is linked to increased psychological distress. Additional research, which focuses on sampling populations who are known to be at greater risk for involvement in HMB, is needed to fully understand the impact of the victim-offender overlap on mental health outcomes.

Experiences of racism in the U.S. - A perspective from Asian & Pacific Islander, Black, Latina, and Middle Eastern women

Introduction

Racism is a critical social determinant of health because it can have a direct impact on health and well-being, as well as infiltrate systems, policies, and practices. Few studies have explored the similarities and differences of experiences with racism and health between different minoritized groups. The objective of this paper is to examine how racism influences life experiences from the perspectives of Asian & Pacific Islander, Black, Latina, and Middle Eastern women.

Methods

Eleven online racially/ethnically homogeneous focus groups with a total of 52 participants were conducted in the U.S., with representation from the North, South, and West coast. The online focus groups were recorded, transcribed, and two were translated into English (from Vietnamese and Spanish). The data was coded through NVivo and analyzed through a series of team meetings to establish themes.

Results

Participants reported experiences of racism and discrimination, including physical and verbal personal attacks. They shared the role of microaggressions in their daily life, along with the ubiquitous anti-Black sentiment discussed in every group. Our participants discussed the complexities of intersectionality in their experience of discrimination, specifically regarding immigration status, language spoken, and gender. Participants also reported the role of direct racism and vicarious racism (e.g., the experiences with racism of friends or family, awareness of racist incidents via the news) in affecting their mental health. Some effects were fear, stress, anxiety, depression, and self-censoring. For participants in the Black and Latina focus groups, mental health stressors often manifested into physical issues.

Discussion

Understanding the nuances in experiences across racial/ethnic groups is beneficial in identifying potential interventions to prevent and address racism and its negative health impacts.

Examining the association of structural stigmas with body image-related outcomes among sexual minority individuals

Sexual minority individuals display heightened body image disturbance, which is associated with negative health outcomes. Structural stigmas are associated with negative health outcomes among sexual minority individuals, but the association between structural stigmas and body image is not understood. Using a linear regression approach, we examined how U.S. state-level structural racism and structural sexual minority stigma were associated with body image-related outcomes including eating pathology, appearance and/or performance-enhancing drug (APED) misuse, and dysmorphic concern. Participants were 942 cisgender sexual minority individuals ages 18-30, with approximately equal representation among non-Hispanic/Latinx White, Black, Asian, and Hispanic/Latinx individuals. There was not a significant main effect of state-level structural sexual minority stigma on body image-related outcomes. In states with higher structural racism, Hispanic/Latinx participants endorsed higher APED misuse, and this interaction was not significant among non-Hispanic/Latinx White individuals. This pattern was not found among Black or Asian participants, nor was it replicated for dysmorphic concern or eating pathology. Findings suggest that reducing exposure to structural racism could reduce APED misuse among Hispanic/Latinx individuals.

Bias Crime and Victimization Among Latinx Adults: Formal and Informal Help Seeking

Latinx adults have become increasingly vulnerable to bias motivated victimization. The impact of such incidents on Latinx communities is severely understudied, particularly concerning whether or not victims will seek help as a result of such events. Evidence within other victimization contexts demonstrate Latinx populations may be less likely to seek formal help from police, medical providers, and other formal authorities, relying instead on informal support networks such as family and friends. The current study sought to understand formal and informal help-seeking behavior among Latinx adults who experienced bias motivated victimization. The Understanding and Measuring Bias Victimization against Latinos study obtained rates of bias victimization and subsequent help-seeking behavior among Latinx adults who reported experiencing bias victimization (n = 315, 34.6% of full sample of 910). Those who experience bias victimization seek formal help at much lower rates than informal forms of support. Logistic regression analyses controlling the type of victimization demonstrated that participants who experienced a victimization constituting a hate crime were more likely to seek formal help compared to experiencing non-criminal bias events. Implications include addressing barriers to Latinx bias victims seeking forms of help, in addition to understanding the potential polyvictimization histories that predict why Latinx adults may decide to seek help.

Assessing attitudes about hate: Further validation of the hate crime beliefs scale

The Hate Crime Beliefs Scale (HCBS) is an assessment of attitudes about hate crime laws, offenders, and victims. The original HCBS includes four subscales (negative beliefs, offender punishment, deterrence, and victim harm), while a shortened and modified version from the United Kingdom (UK; HCBS-UK) consists of three subscales (denial, sentencing, and compassion). We conducted a psychometric test of the HCBS in order to identify a best fitting structure with possible item reduction. A total of 463 participants completed the original HCBS, measures of social dominance orientation (SDO) and right-wing authoritarianism (RWA), and demographic questions. Factor analyses revealed good fit of the data for a Hate Crime Beliefs Scale-Short Form (HCBS-SF), largely modeled after the HCBS-UK. The three subscales were: denial (i.e., downplaying hate crime severity and low support for hate crime laws), sentencing (i.e., support for more punitive offender punishment), and compassion (i.e., understanding and concern for victims). All subscales possessed acceptable internal consistency. The denial subscale was positively associated with RWA subscale and SDO scores. The sentencing and compassion subscales were significantly negatively correlated with SDO and RWA subscale scores. Republicans held the least supportive views of hate crime laws, concern for victims, and punishment of offenders. Data underscore the importance of evaluating hate crime beliefs in public opinion and other contexts. The HCBS-SF better captures hate crime related attitudes than the previously developed longer version of the HCBS.

Identity-based hate and violence as trauma: Current research, clinical implications, and advocacy in a globally connected world

Hate-based violence is increasingly recognized as an urgent social justice and human rights issue that is pervasive across geographical and socioeconomic boundaries. There is a growing body of research that demonstrates the traumatic impact of hate-based violence on the victim's mental and physical health. This review focuses on examining scientific knowledge and prevalence data on identity-based hate and violence exposure. A framework for conceptualizing hate-based violence as a traumatic event or series of traumatic events is offered as a means to understand research findings and intervention approaches. The importance of research, advocacy, and human rights training is highlighted in the efforts to address the traumatic impact of identity-based hate and violence.