Agitation and psychosis associated with dementia with lewy bodies exacerbated by modafinil use

Reduction and prevention of agitation in persons with neurocognitive disorders: an international psychogeriatric association consensus algorithm

OBJECTIVES

To develop an agitation reduction and prevention algorithm is intended to guide implementation of the definition of agitation developed by the International Psychogeriatric Association (IPA).

DESIGN

Review of literature on treatment guidelines and recommended algorithms; algorithm development through reiterative integration of research information and expert opinion.

SETTING

IPA Agitation Workgroup.

PARTICIPANTS

IPA panel of international experts on agitation.

INTERVENTION

Integration of available information into a comprehensive algorithm.

MEASUREMENTS

None.

RESULTS

The IPA Agitation Work Group recommends the Investigate, Plan, and Act (IPA) approach to agitation reduction and prevention. A thorough investigation of the behavior is followed by planning and acting with an emphasis on shared decision-making; the success of the plan is evaluated and adjusted as needed. The process is repeated until agitation is reduced to an acceptable level and prevention of recurrence is optimized. Psychosocial interventions are part of every plan and are continued throughout the process. Pharmacologic interventions are organized into panels of choices for nocturnal/circadian agitation; mild-moderate agitation or agitation with prominent mood features; moderate-severe agitation; and severe agitation with threatened harm to the patient or others. Therapeutic alternatives are presented for each panel. The occurrence of agitation in a variety of venues-home, nursing home, emergency department, hospice-and adjustments to the therapeutic approach are presented.

CONCLUSIONS

The IPA definition of agitation is operationalized into an agitation management algorithm that emphasizes the integration of psychosocial and pharmacologic interventions, reiterative assessment of response to treatment, adjustment of therapeutic approaches to reflect the clinical situation, and shared decision-making.

Systematic review of pharmacological interventions for people with Lewy body dementia

OBJECTIVE

Lewy body dementia (LBD) is the second most common neurodegenerative dementia, and it causes earlier mortality and more morbidity than Alzheimer's disease. Reviewing current evidence on its pharmacological management is essential for developing evidence-based clinical guidelines, and for improving the quality of its clinical care. Hence, we systematically reviewed all studies that investigated the efficacy of any medication for managing various symptoms of LBD.

METHOD

We identified eligible studies by searching 15 databases comprehensively. We completed quality assessment, extracted relevant data, and performed GRADE assessment of available evidence. We conducted meta-analyses when appropriate (PROSPERO:CRD42020182166).

RESULTS

We screened 18,884 papers and included 135 studies. Our meta-analyses confirmed level-1 evidence for Donepezil's efficacy of managing cognitive symptoms of dementia with Lewy bodies (DLB) (SMD = 0.63; p < 0.001) and Parkinson's Disease Dementia (PDD) (SMD = 0.43; p < 0.01), and managing hallucinations in DLB (SMD=-0.52; p = 0.02). Rivastigmine and Memantine have level-2 evidence for managing cognitive and neuropsychiatric symptoms of DLB. Olanzapine and Yokukansan have similar evidence for managing DLB neuropsychiatric symptoms. Level-2 evidence support the efficacy of Rivastigmine and Galantamine for managing cognitive and neuropsychiatric symptoms of PDD.

CONCLUSION

We list evidence-based recommendations for the pharmacological management of DLB and PDD, and propose specific clinical guidelines for improving their clinical management.

Supplemental data for this article can be accessed online at https://doi.org/10.1080/13607863.2022.2032601 .

Psychostimulants as cognitive enhancers – the evidence for the use and abuse of smart drugs

While modafinil is licensed to treat narcolepsy as a psychostimulant, there is widespread use as a “smart drug” in the young to help study and interest in older populations as a cognitive enhancer. This review considers both the evidence for benefit and potential for harm. If it is as effective as it seems, should we all be using it? Should Neurologists recommend it, and should we worry if our patients are taking it? In this review the evidence base behind psychostimulants, in particular modafinil as a cognitive enhancer, is discussed.

Pharmacological management of dementia with Lewy bodies with a focus on zonisamide for treating parkinsonism

INTRODUCTION

Dementia with Lewy bodies (DLB) has no approved symptomatic or disease-modifying treatments in the US and Europe, despite being the second most common cause of neurodegenerative dementia.

AREAS COVERED

Herein, the authors briefly review the DLB drug development pipeline, providing a summary of the current pharmacological intervention studies. They then focus on the anticonvulsant zonisamide, a benzisoxazole derivative with a sulfonamide group and look at its value for treating parkinsonism in DLB.

EXPERT OPINION

Several new compounds are being tested in DLB, the most innovative being those aimed at decreasing brain accumulation of α-synuclein. Unfortunately, new drug testing is challenging in terms of consistent diagnostic criteria and lack of reliable biomarkers. Few randomized controlled trials (RCTs) are well-designed, with enough power to detect significant drug effects. Levodopa monotherapy can treat the parkinsonism in DLB, but it can cause agitation or visual hallucination worsening. Two Phase II/III RCTs of DLB patients recently reported a statistically significant improvement in motor function in those receiving zonisamide as an adjunctive treatment to levodopa. New biomarker strategies and validated outcome measures for DLB or prodromal DLB may enhance clinical trial design for the development of specific disease-modifying treatments.

Clinical drug development for dementia with Lewy bodies: past and present

Introduction: Dementia with Lewy bodies (DLB) is an under-researched area despite being the second most common type of degenerative dementia after Alzheimer's disease. It is an area of unmet need with no approved symptomatic or disease-modifying therapies. The pharmacological management of DLB is complex and challenging because early trials of drugs for DLB have resulted in no demonstrable efficacy. Randomized controlled trials (RCTs) in the DLB population have only recently been initiated. Understanding results from previous and current clinical trials in DLB can provide insights for future research and development.Areas covered: We provide an overview of the DLB drug development landscape and the current treatment strategies. We reviewed ClinicalTrials.gov to identify all clinical trials for the treatment of DLB.Expert opinion: DLB drug development has significantly improved in recent years with eight agents now in clinical trials. However, more rigorous RCTs are urgently needed. Diagnostic criteria must be optimized to accurately diagnose patients for clinical trials and care. New biomarker strategies are necessary to improve diagnostic capabilities and trial designs, and novel drug targets should be identified to develop DLB specific disease-modifying therapies. Evaluating the current drug development landscape can provide insight into how best to optimize development practices.

Advances in the pharmacotherapeutic management of dementia with Lewy bodies

INTRODUCTION

Dementia with Lewy bodies (DLB) is the second most common type of dementia in people over 65 years of age. Given the complex clinical phenotype, the management of DLB may be challenging, especially considering that there is limited evidence about specific interventions, and there are currently no Food and Drug Administration (FDA)/European Medicines Agency (EMA)-approved medications.

AREAS COVERED

This article provides an overview of the current pharmacotherapy in DLB and gives review to the most recent drug candidates in clinical trials.

EXPERT OPINION

Commonly prescribed drugs are primarily aimed at treating the most troublesome clinical features of DLB. Although these medications provide some benefit to symptoms, there is, unfortunately, a lack of DLB-specific evidence on effective treatments and their off-label use. Indeed, most treatments used come from clinical trials on patients with Alzheimer's disease or Parkinson's disease. Thus, there is an urgent need for randomized clinical trials in DLB patients. Despite several challenges, potential new drugs are in ongoing clinical trials; furthermore, as our understanding of molecular and cellular mechanisms underlying DLB broaden, it is likely that we will identify novel drug targets for the development of better and more effective symptomatic products and disease-modifying therapies.

REM Sleep Behavior Disorder (RBD) in Dementia with Lewy Bodies (DLB)

Rapid eye movement sleep behavior disorder (RBD) is a parasomnia, with abnormal dream-enacting behavior during the rapid eye movement (REM) sleep. RBD is either idiopathic or secondary to other neurologic disorders and medications. Dementia with Lewy bodies (DLB) is the third most common cause of dementia, and the typical clinical presentation is rapidly progressive cognitive impairment. RBD is one of the core features of DLB and may occur either in advance or simultaneously with the onset of DLB. The association between RBD with DLB is widely studied. Evidences suggest that both DLB and RBD are possibly caused by the shared underlying synucleinopathy. This review article discusses history, clinical manifestations, possible pathophysiologies, and treatment of DLB and RBD and provides the latest updates.

Practical Treatment of Lewy Body Disease in the Clinic: Patient and Physician Perspectives

This article describes the practical considerations in the clinical medical treatment in dementia with Lewy body (DLB) patients. It is illustrated with the voice of a DLB sufferer and his wife. According to our experience, emanating from a 15 year collaboration between a doctor and a nurse at a memory clinic, there are several possible therapeutical entrances. However, the order in which the medication is introduced is of great importance to avoid aggravation of other DLB symptoms. We start the treatment with cholinesterase inhibitor and memantine, and; thereafter, we treat the most disturbing symptom. Thereafter, we consider if orthostatic hypotension is present and treat it. In the treatment of depression and anxiety it is beneficial to use agents affecting both noradrenalin and serotonin. Dysphagia may be lethal but can be improved with carbohydrate drinks. These and other aspects are commented upon from our experience and are also reflected in relation to studies evaluating the existing level of evidence.

Diagnosis and Management of Cognitive and Behavioral Changes in Dementia With Lewy Bodies

OPINION STATEMENT

Proper diagnosis of dementia with Lewy bodies (DLB) in clinical practice remains suboptimal as many cases are misdiagnosed, usually as Alzheimer disease (AD) or Parkinson's disease (PD) and, in rare cases, psychosis. Therefore, it is important for patients with dementia to be thoroughly evaluated by a specialist who is familiar with current diagnostic tests and treatment options. New diagnostic criteria from the Dementia with Lewy Bodies Consortium have been developed to increase diagnostic sensitivity for DLB (Diagnosis and management of dementia with Lewy bodies: fourth consensus report of the DLB Consortium; McKeith et al.; Neurology, 89(1): 88-100). REM sleep behavior disorder (RBD) has been studied more thoroughly in correlation with DLB and is now considered a core feature. D2 receptor blocking antipsychotics, which can cause severe antipsychotic sensitivity, are now rarely prescribed for treatment. Therefore, severe antipsychotic sensitivity, which was a suggestive criterion for DLB diagnosis, is now listed as a supportive feature. Reduced DAT uptake in basal ganglia demonstrated by SPECT or PET imaging has high specificity (90%) for distinguishing DLB from AD. Reduced uptake on metaiodobenzylguanidine myocardial scintigraphy correlates with reduced postganglionic sympathetic cardiac innervation in Lewy body diseases, which can increase specificity for discriminating probable DLB from probable AD in milder cases of dementia. However, the latter is more commonly used in Japan and is not used in the USA. The evidence supporting the benefit of other therapeutic modalities is limited in DLB due to lack of extensive studies. There are no FDA-approved medications for the treatment of DLB, although some effective drugs have been used off label to treat various symptoms.

Enhancing attention in neurodegenerative diseases: current therapies and future directions

We all experience at least occasional lapses in attention but in some neurological conditions, loss of attention is pervasive and debilitating. Treating deficits in attention first requires an understanding of the neurobiology of attention, which we now understand to be a set of different cognitive processes. Cholinesterase inhibitors are already established as effective attentional enhancers used in the treatment of certain dementias. Other stimulant agents such as modafanil, amphetamine and methylphenidate have demonstrated limited success in healthy individuals where attention is already optimal and clinical trials in patients with neurological disease are sparse. Dietary and lifestyle changes are gaining increasing prominence, as are experimental treatments such as deep brain stimulation and transcranial magnetic stimulation. As the therapeutic arsenal widens, clinicians will be able to match specific treatments to selective deficits in attention, giving patients a tailored management plan. Here we review common diseases that impair attention and emphasise how an understanding of attentional processing within the brain might lead to improved therapeutic strategies.

Modafinil-Induced Psychosis: A Case Report

Modafinil is used in the treatment of excessive day time sleepiness associated with several clinical conditions. It can also be used for affective stimulation for working late and/or concentrating for a long time. The reported cases of psychosis associated with modafinil use in the literature, have medical or psychiatric diorders. There is only one reported case without medical or psychiatric disorder but developed modafinil related psychosis, which is a case under simulated shift work in laboratory conditions. The cases in the literature are reported to develop mania or psychosis with 200-400 mg/day or higher doses. The case reported in this manuscript develop psychosis with 100 mg/day dosage. This case has no previous psychiatric and medical disorder history and not being on a shift work. The aim of modafinil use in this case was reported as increasing the concentration and performance while studying. Modafinil using patients must be psychiatrically monitored for its potential psychotic effect even in previously healthy individuals and low doses.