Prolonged prenatal hypernatremia alters neuroendocrine and electrolyte homeostasis in neonatal sheep

Early free access to hypertonic NaCl solution induces a long-term effect on drinking, brain cell activity and gene expression of adult rat offspring

Exposure to an altered osmotic environment during a pre/postnatal period can differentially program the fluid intake and excretion pattern profile in a way that persists until adulthood. However, knowledge about the programming effects on the underlying brain neurochemical circuits of thirst and hydroelectrolyte balance, and its relation with behavioral outputs, is limited. We evaluated whether early voluntary intake of hypertonic NaCl solution may program adult offspring fluid balance, plasma vasopressin, neural activity, and brain vasopressin and angiotensinergic receptor type 1a (AT1a)-receptor gene expression. The manipulation (M) period covered dams from 1 week before conception until offspring turned 1-month-old. The experimental groups were (i) Free access to hypertonic NaCl solution (0.45 M NaCl), food (0.18% NaCl) and water [M-Na]; and (ii) Free access to food and water only [M-Ctrol]. Male offspring (2-month-old) were subjected to iv infusion (0.15 ml/min) of hypertonic (1.5M NaCl), isotonic (0.15M NaCl) or sham infusion during 20 min. Cumulative water intake (140 min) and drinking latency to the first lick were recorded from the start of the infusion. Our results indicate that, after systemic sodium overload, the M-Na group had increased water intake, and diminished neuronal activity (Fos-immunoreactivity) in the subfornical organ (SFO) and nucleus of the solitary tract. They also showed reduced relative vasopressin (AVP)-mRNA and AT1a-mRNA expression at the supraoptic nucleus and SFO, respectively. The data indicate that the availability of a rich source of sodium during the pre/postnatal period induces a long-term effect on drinking, neural activity, and brain gene expression implicated in the control of hydroelectrolyte balance.

Ovine fetal renal development impacted by multiple fetuses and uterine space restriction

Intrauterine growth restriction (IUGR) from uteroplacental dysfunction causes impaired nephrogenesis and ultimately hypertension, but it is unknown whether IUGR caused by insufficient space for placental development seen in uterine anomalies and/or multifetal gestation exerts the same effects. Fetal renal development and metabolism were studied in an ovine space-restriction model by combining unilateral horn surgical ligation and/or multifetal gestation. Reduced placental attachment sites and placental weight per fetus defined space-restricted (USR) v. control nonrestricted (NSR) fetuses. Space-restricted fetuses exhibited evidence for decreased plasma volume, with higher hematocrit and plasma albumin at gestational day (GD) 120, followed by lower blood pO2, and higher osmolarity and creatinine at GD130, P < 0.05 for all. By combining treatments, fetal kidney weight relative to fetal weight was inversely related to both fetal weight and plasma creatinine levels, P < 0.05 for both. At GD130, space-restricted fetal kidney weights, cortical depths and glomerular generations were decreased, P < 0.05 for all. Space-restricted kidneys underwent an adaptive response by prolonging active nephrogenesis and increasing maculae densa number, P < 0.05 for both. The major renal adaptations in space-restricted IUGR fetuses included immaturity in both development and endocrine function, with evidence for impaired renal excretory function.

Gender specificity of programmed plasma hypertonicity and hemoconcentration in adult offspring of water-restricted rat dams

OBJECTIVE

We studied the impact of maternal water-restriction during rat pregnancy on newborn plasma composition, and determined the persistence of plasma composition alterations in adult offspring.

METHODS

Maternal dams were water-restricted from 10 days of pregnancy until term (21 days) and throughout lactation to increase plasma sodium levels by approximately 6 mEq/L. At 21 days of age, offspring were weaned, and subsequently maintained on ad libitum food and water until 12 weeks of age. Daily water and food intake was monitored. Blood samples and organs were collected from 1-day- and 12-week-old offspring. Hematocrit, plasma osmolality, sodium, and arginine vasopressin (AVP) levels were analyzed. Because water-restriction led to concomitant reduction in maternal food intake (ie, dehydration anorexia), henceforth these dams and their offspring are referred to as "water-deprived/food-reduced" rats.

RESULTS

Water-deprived/food-reduced dams had significantly increased plasma sodium levels, reduced food intake, and lower body weight gain during pregnancy and lactation as compared to control dams. One-day-old newborns of water-deprived/food-reduced dams weighed 17% less and had increased plasma sodium levels, osmolality, and hematocrit. At 12 weeks of age, males exhibited 11% and females 19% reduction in body weight from controls. Notably, male offspring of water-deprived/food-reduced dams showed significantly elevated plasma sodium levels, osmolality, and hematocrit. Additionally, males demonstrated reduced adrenal growth and decreased water intake. Conversely, the female offspring had similar plasma osmolality with decreased sodium levels, though a persistently elevated hematocrit. No differences were evident in plasma AVP levels.

CONCLUSIONS

Maternal water deprivation/food reduction is associated with increased newborn plasma osmolality and sodium levels and long-term physiologic changes in the offspring. The gender-specificity of programmed hyperosmolality, though not hemoconcentration, implicates differing pathways/mechanisms for these phenotypic alterations. The contributions of pregnancy hypertonicity versus nutrient restriction in the mechanism for programmed offspring phenotype remain to be elucidated.

Protective effect of prenatal water restriction on offspring cardiovascular homeostasis in response to hemorrhage

We determined the cardiovascular and AVP responses of prenatally dehydrated (PreDehy) neonates to intravascular hemorrhage. Ewes with singleton fetuses were subjected to water restriction from 110 days of gestation to full term to achieve hypernatremia of 8–10 meq/l. Water and food were provided ad libitum to control ewes. After delivery, water and food were provided ad libitum to ewes from both groups, and newborns were allowed to nurse ad libitum. At 15 ± 2 days of age, PreDehy and control lambs were prepared with bladder and femoral catheters and studied at 25 ± 2 days of age. After a 2-h basal period, lambs were hemorrhaged to 30% of blood volume over 1 h (0.5% of blood volume/min) and monitored 1 h after hemorrhage. Neonatal arterial blood pressure was measured, and blood samples were collected. Basal plasma sodium levels, plasma osmolality, hematocrit, and mean arterial pressure were increased in PreDehy lambs compared with controls. Both groups had similar basal AVP levels and heart rate. In response to hemorrhage, all parameters remained significantly elevated in PreDehy lambs. Blood pressure decreased less in PreDehy lambs than in controls. The hemorrhage-AVP threshold (percent blood volume withdrawal at which plasma AVP values significantly increased) was markedly elevated (20 vs. 15%) and peak hemorrhage-induced AVP plasma levels were lower (5.6 ± 1.5 vs. 10.1 ± 1.5 pg/ml, P < 0.01) in PreDehy lambs than in controls. Thus offspring of dehydrated ewes demonstrate enhanced AVP secretory responses to hypotension. Despite potential long-term adverse effects of systemic hypertension, these results suggest a protective effect of prenatal water restriction on offspring cardiovascular homeostasis during blood volume reduction.

Gestational programming: population survival effects of drought and famine during pregnancy

The process whereby a stimulus or stress at a critical or sensitive period of development has long-term effects is termed "programming." Studies in humans and animals convincingly demonstrate that environmental perturbations in utero may permanently change organ structure and metabolism and/or alter homeostatic regulatory mechanisms among the offspring. These programmed changes may be the origins of adult diseases, including cardiovascular disease, obesity, and diabetes. Throughout evolution and development, humans and animals have been exposed to two common environmental stresses, drought and famine. Notably, drought-induced water deprivation is associated with dehydration anorexia and thus a concomitant potential nutrient stress. Our laboratory has performed studies among pregnant rat and sheep in which we simulate drought conditions via maternal dehydration and famine conditions via nutrient restriction. Maternal dehydration results in low-birth-weight offspring, which demonstrate gender-specific plasma hypernatremia and hypertonicity and arterial hypertension. Gestational nutrient restriction also resulted in low-birth-weight offspring. If permitted rapid catch-up growth by nutrient availability, these offspring demonstrate evidence of increased body weight and body fat, and leptin resistance as adults. Conversely, if the catch-up growth is delayed by nutrition restriction, the offspring exhibit normal body weight, body fat, and plasma leptin levels as adults. These studies indicate that osmoregulatory and cardiovascular homeostasis and phenotypic predisposition to obesity may be programmed in utero. Importantly, these results suggest that programming effects may be either potentiated or prevented by interventions during the neonatal period.

Enhanced Ca2+ response to AVP in preglomerular vessels from rats with genetic hypertension during different hydration states

Exaggerated arginine vasopressin (AVP)-induced calcium signaling and renal vasoconstriction, characteristic in young spontaneously hypertensive rats (SHR) during euvolemia, are related to greater amounts of V1a receptor mRNA and V1a protein in preglomerular resistance arterioles. The present study determined whether V1a receptor density and calcium signal transduction in the renal vasculature of young SHR is regulated appropriately during physiological changes in hydration state. [3H]AVP ligand binding documented two- to threefold greater density of V1a receptors in euvolemic SHR vs. Wistar-Kyoto (WKY) rats. Parallel changes in V1a receptor density were observed in both strains during chronic water loading (plus approximately 50 fmol/mg) and during dehydration (minus approximately 50 fmol/mg). Affinity was unchanged. Real-time RT-PCR demonstrated that V1a mRNA in preglomerular arterioles was three times greater in euvolemic SHR. Dehydration decreased expression approximately 50% in renal vessels independent of rat strain; water loading increased V1a mRNA. Thus V1a receptor regulation correlated with changes in mRNA in a normal manner in response to chronic changes in AVP concentration, albeit set at a higher level in SHR. In dehydrated animals, AVP increased the cytosolic Ca2+ concentration ([Ca2+]i) by 60 +/- 5 and 112 +/- 13 nM cytosolic Ca2+ in WKY and SHR, respectively (P < 0.01), whereas in hydrated animals the [Ca2+]i increase was 168 +/- 10 and 220 +/- 18 nM, respectively (P < 0.05). In all hydration states, calcium signaling was greater in SHR compared with WKY (P < 0.05). Calcium signaling paralleled changes in the receptor density and mRNA. Mechanisms other than hydration state per se are likely to be responsible for the two- to threefold difference in the V1a receptor density between WKY and SHR in the renal vasculature at the critical age of 6 wk.

Prenatal programming of hypernatremia and hypertension in neonatal lambs

Maternal water restriction and the accompanying dehydration-induced anorexia may induce long-term physiological changes in offspring. We determined the impact of prenatal hypertonicity (Pre-Dehy) on offspring cardiovascular and osmoregulatory function. Pre-Dehy lambs were exposed to in utero hypernatremia (8- to 10-meq increase; 110–150 days of gestation) induced by maternal water restriction. Control lambs were born to ewes provided ad libitum water and food throughout gestation. After delivery, all ewes were provided ad libitum water and all newborns were allowed ad libitum nursing. Lambs were prepared with vascular and bladder catheters at 15 ± 2 days of age and studied at 21 ± 2 days. After a 2-h basal period, lambs received an infusion of hypotonic (0.075 M) NaCl (0.15 ml·kg−1·h−1 iv) for 2 h. Lamb arterial blood pressure was monitored, and blood samples were obtained before, during, and after infusion. During the neonatal basal period, Pre-Dehy lambs had significantly increased plasma osmolality (302 ± 1 vs. 294 ± 1 mosmol/kgH2O, P < 0.01), sodium levels (144 ± 1 vs. 140 ± 1 meq/l, P < 0.01), hematocrit (28 ± 1% vs. 25 ± 1%, P < 0.05), and mean arterial blood pressure (79 ± 2 vs. 68 ± 1 mmHg, P < 0.001) compared with control lambs. Despite the infusion of hypotonic saline, Pre-Dehy lambs maintained relative hypertonicity, hypernatremia, and hypertension. However, plasma arginine vasopressin, glomerular filtration rate, and urinary osmolar and sodium excretion and clearance (per kg body wt) were similar in the groups. Offspring of prenatally water-restricted ewes exhibit hypernatremia, hypertonicity, and hypertension, which persist despite hypotonic saline infusion. In utero hypertonicity and perhaps maternal nutrient stress may program offspring osmoregulation and systemic arterial hypertension.

Programming of hypertonicity in neonatal lambs: resetting of the threshold for vasopressin secretion

Lambs exposed in utero to maternal hypertonicity demonstrate plasma hypertonicity and arterial hypertension. To determine whether hypertonicity is due to an altered osmoregulatory set point, we examined arginine-vasopressin and cardiovascular responses to hypertonic saline infusion in these offspring. Study lambs [dehydrated (Dehy)] were exposed to maternal hypernatremia (8-10 mEq/liter increase; 110-150 d gestation) induced by water restriction. Control singleton and Control twins were born to ewes provided ad libitum water. We anticipated reduced birth weight due to maternal dehydration-induced anorexia and therefore included a Control group of twin gestations to approach a similar birth weight near term. After delivery, ewes from all three groups were provided ad libitum water, and their newborns were allowed ad libitum nursing. At 15 +/- 2 d of age, lambs were prepared with bladder and vascular catheters. At 23 +/- 2 d, after a 2-h basal period, neonatal lambs were iv infused with hypertonic 0.83 m NaCl (0.075 ml/kg x h) for 2 h, followed by a 2-h recovery. Neonatal mean arterial pressure and urine flow were continuously monitored, and blood samples were obtained before, during, and after infusion. During the basal period, Dehy neonates and Control twins demonstrated significantly increased plasma sodium levels and mean arterial pressure than Control singletons. In addition, the Dehy neonates had significantly increased plasma osmolality compared with Control singletons and twins. In response to hypertonic infusion, the Dehy offspring continued to exhibit hypertonicity and hypertension. Importantly, plasma tonicity and blood pressure were greatest in Dehy singletons, lowest in singleton controls, and intermediate in twin controls. Furthermore, the plasma osmolality threshold for AVP secretion was significantly higher in Dehy singletons (290 +/- 2 mOsm/kg) than Control twins (285 +/- 1 mOsm/kg) and Control singletons (280 +/- 2 mOsm/kg), indicating in utero programming of an altered set point for systemic osmolality and blood pressure regulation. Because both twin gestation and dehydration-anorexia incur potential fetal nutritional stress, the results suggest that both in utero hypertonicity and nutrition reduction contribute to offspring programming. We postulate that the nutritional stress associated with twins (as well as dehydration-induced anorexia) contributes to increased plasma sodium levels, whereas the increased plasma osmolality is due to in utero hypertonicity.